B    3    272    115 


>^ 


y 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


v 


xjr 1/4^ 


OCEAN   LIFE; 


BY 


JAMES  M.  SOMMEKYILLE,  M.  D., 


Member  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 


OF 


Philadelphia. 


'THERE'S  BEAUTY  IN  THE  DEEP." 


PHILADELPHIA: 
BARNARD  &  JONES,  PRINTERS, 

No,  510  MINOR  STREET,  (RIDGWAY  BUILDINGS.) 
1859. 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by  JAMES  M. 
SOMMEBVILLB,  M.  D.,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  and  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


i\  MORAS,  Lithographer,  No.  609  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  SEA,  which  is  the  least  explored  of  Nature's  realms,  holds 
within  it  a  wonderfully  organized  world,  peculiar  to  itself.  It 
abounds  with  a  living  flora  and  fauna,  which,  though  obscure  and 
strange,  are  equally  beautiful  and  useful.  An  endeavor  has  been 
made  to  exhibit  in  one  group,  representations  of  some  of  the  most 
interesting  submarine  forms,  occurring  in  southern  latitudes,  off 
the  coasts  of  America ;  observing  their  forms,  colors,  and  habits, 
so  truthfully,  that  the  plate  shall  prove  of  value  to  the  lover  of 
nature,  and  afford  delight  and  instruction,  to  the  intelligent  mind 
and  cultivated  taste.  Seventy-five  species  of  the  lower  forms  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life  are  shown  of  their  natural  size,  and  as 
they  appear  in  their  native  element.  The  grouping  may  be  con- 
sidered, rather  as  an  intellectual  truth,  than  as  a  literal  view. — 
It  might  be  termed  a  mental  oasis  of  the  sea. — And  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  floor  of  the  ocean  is  not  every  where  adorned 
with  such  forms  of  beauty.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  its  seeming 
wastes  of  vast  extent,  as  well  as  the  dry  land.  But  even  in  those 
apparent  deserts,  the  plummet  has  revealed  myriads  of  minute 
Diatomacece.  In  looking  down  from  a  boat,  through  moderately 
clear  water,  I  have  observed  a  floor  so  desolate,  that  my  first  im- 
pulse was  to  pronounce  it  a  cheerless  blank  ;  but  on  drawing  the 
dredge,  it  has  afforded  a  rich  variety  of  objects  of  great  interest- 


M374276 


IV  INTRODUCTION. 

Yet  there  are  many  places,  especially  in  the  shallower  waters, 
densely  clothed  with  forests  of  sea-plants,  which  are  inhabited 
by  numerous  and  varied  representatives  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
It  is  astonishing,  how  many  living  species  may  be  found  in  a 
small  tide-pool,  where  circumstances  have  favored  their  necessi- 
ties. In  the  Tableau,  however,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
exhibit  congruous  forms,  or  even  those  from  waters  of  the  same 
temperature.  The  objects  have  been  taken  (as  will  be  seen  by 
reference  to  the  key,)  from  localities  widely  separated,  and  are 
brought  together  with  regard  to  their  habits ;  so  as  to  set  forth, 
(with  the  aid  of  the  text,)  their  peculiarities,  and  their  positions, 
and  relations  to  each  other,  in  their  respective  classes,  and  to 
show  the  dependence  of  the  great  kingdoms  upon  each  other. — 
The  work  is  chiefly  intended  for  popular  use ;  and  the  hope  is 
humbly  indulged,  that  it  may  prove  an  aid,  and  an  incentive  to  . 
the  great  study  of  comparative  zoology ;  an  acquaintance  with 
which  seems  indispensable  to  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  man- 
kind. The  description  of  the  plate  is  so  arranged  that  the  reader 
will  be  conducted  from  the  investigation  of  the  lower  forms  of 
life,  (as  they  appear  to  us,)  to  those  more  complicated  in  struc- 
ture. 

The  picture  was  executed  in  water  colors  by  Mr.  C.  Schuessele, 
and  it  is  with  much  pleasure  that  I  acknowledge  his  superior 
qualifications  as  an  artist.  I  am  also  happy  to  speak  in  the 
highest  terms  of  praise,  of  the  abilities  of  Mr.  F.  Moras,  who  re- 
produced the  Tableau  in  a  very  superior  style  of  chrorno-litho- 
graphy.  I  would  likewise  gratefully  express  my  obligation  for 
valuable  suggestions,  to  Mr.  James  Hamilton,  the  distinguished 
marine  and  landscape  painter.  In  offering  the  work  to  the  public, 
I  do  not  pretend  that  it  has  reached  perfection,  neither  am  I 
confident  that  its  accuracy  is  faultless ;  yet  every  effort  has  been 
made  to  render  it  a  truthful  and  acceptable  medium  for  impart- 
ing knowledge.  Any  errors  which  may  have  crept  in  while  pass- 
ing through  the  hands  of  the  different  operators,  (if  conscious  of 
them,)  I  have  corrected  by  drawings  in  the  pamphlet.  The  text 
is  chiefly  compiled  from  the  writings  of  European  authors  of  ce- 
lebrity. I  have  been  guided  in  making  the  selections,  which  are 
from  many  sources,  by  my  own  observations  upon  living  objects  ; 


INTRODUCTION.  V 

and  have  endeavored  to  make  the  description  as  comprehensive 
as  the  limits  of  the  volume  would  admit;  hoping  that  many  may 
derive  pleasure  and  profit  from  the  investigation  of  these  inhabi- 
tants of  the  sea,  and  that  some  may  be  induced  to  go  forth  and 
reveal  new  facts  in  the  economy  of  nature ;  expounding  the  won- 
derful constructions  and  important  uses,  which  are  hidden  in  the 
humblest  of  the  Creator's  works. 

While  some  of  the  objects  pictured  have  been  drawn  from 
Nature,  expressly  for  the  Tableau ;  yet  for  others  which  were 
beyond  my  reach,  I  am  principally  indebted  to  the  government 
publications  of  Europe  and  America. 

JAMES  M.  SOMMERVILLE,  M.  D. 

AUTHORITIES. 

Nereis  Boreali  Americana.  By  William  II.  Harvey,  M.  D. — 
General  Outline  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  By  T.  Rymer  Jones, 
F.  R.  S. — Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal.  Dr.  Grant. — His- 
tory of  British  Sponges.  By  George  Johnson,  M.  D. — Manual 
of  Marine  Zoology.  By  P.  II.  Gosse. — Report  of  British  Asso- 
ciation, 1834.  Sir  John  Dalyell.— British  Zoophytes.  By  Dr.  G. 
Johnston. — Prof.  A.  De  Quatrefages. — G.  B.  Sowerby,  F.L.  S. — 
U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  Zoophites.  By  Prof.  James  D. 
Dana. — Histoire  Naturelle  Des  Zoophytes,  Par  Rene  Primevere 
Lesson. — Philosophical  Transactions,  1773.  Actinia. — Trans- 
actions of  the  Microscopical  Society  of  London. — Encyclopedia 
Londiriensis.  Actinia. — Ann.  and  Mag.  of  Natural  History, 
1855.  Crustacea. — Lectures  on  the  Comparative  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  of  the  Invertebrate  Animals.  By  Richard  Owen,  F. 
R.  S.— History  of  British  Star-fishes,  &c.  By  Edward  Forbes. — 
S.  P.  Woodward's  Manual  of  the  Mollusca. — Siebold's  Comp. 
Anat.  of  Invertebrata. — Voyage  daus  L'Amerique  Meridionale, 
&c.,  Par  Alcide  D'Orbigny. — Hand-book  of  Zoology.  By  Prof. 
J.  Van  Der  Hoeven. — Le-Regne  Animal  par  Georges  Cuvier. — 
Histoire  Naturelle  de  L'lle  De  Cuba,  par  M.  Ramon  De  La 
Sagra. — History  of  British  Fishes.  By  William  Yarrell,  F.L.S., 
and  my  own  observations. 

J.  M.  S. 


OCEAN  LIFE 


ALGJE. — SEA-WEEDS. 

1.  Caulerpa  Mexicana. 

2.  Halimeda  incrassata.     .^ 

3.  Udotea  conglutinata.          -  ;>^ 

4.  Udotea  conglutinata — young. 

5.  Acetabularia  crenulata.      ;j ,.  • 

6.  Chamsedoris  annulata. 

7.  Halidrys  osniundacea. 

8.  Padina  pavonia.     (Peacock's  tail.) 

9.  Zonaria  lobata.     (Torn  fan.) 

10.  Dictyota  ciliata.  '•.  . 

11.  Hydroclathrus  cancellatus, 

12.  Bostrychia  Montagnei. 

13.  Dasya  Wurdemanni. 

14.  Champia  salicornoides. 

15.  Delesseria  involveus.   ' . 

16.  Botryoglossuni  platycarpum. 

17.  Eucheuma  isiforme. 

18.  Liagoza  valida.  .  ^-h 

19.  Gigartina  microphylla. 

20.  Gigartina  spinosa. 

21.  Chrysymenia  Agardhii. 

22.  Chrysymenia  uvaria.     . 

23.  Prionitis  lanceolata. 

24.  Grateloupia  Gibbesii.    .  , 

25.  Centroceras  clavulatum. 

POEIPHORA. 

26.  Spongio  tubulosa.    (Sponge.)      , . 

POLYPES. 

27.  Sertularia  pinaster.     Garland  of  cups. 

28.  Gorgonia  crassa.  .1 

29.  Renilla  americana.    Throne  of  stars. 


Key  West,  Florida. 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
California. 
Sand  Key,  Florida. 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Sand  Key,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Key  West,     " 
Monterey  California 
Key  West,  Florida. 
Sand  Key,     " 
Monterey  California 
California. 
Key  West,  Florida. 
Key  West,      " 
California. 
Key  West,  Florida. 
Key  West,      " 

Florida. 

Florida. 
Florida. 
Off  Rio  Janeiro. 


KEY   TO   OCEAN   LIFE.  Vll 

30.  Actinia  rubus.        .  Valparaiso,  Chili. 

31.  Actinia  primula.  Off  San  Lorenzo. 

32.  Actinia  achates.  .          Coast  of  Patagonia. 

33.  Actinia  Florida.  San  Lorenzo,  off  Callao,  Peru. 

34.  Actinia  pluvia.  .         San  Lorenzo,  Callao,  " 

35.  Actinia  rhodora.  Hospital  Island,  Rio  de  Janeiro* 

36.  Actinia  pustulata.  .         Praya  Grande  Fort,        " 

37.  Metridium  prsetextum,  Harbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

ACALEPHA. 

38.  Physalia  pelagica,  Portuguese  man-of-war. 

Atlantic  Ocean. 

ECHINODERMATA.       . 

39.  Ophiocoma  rosula.  Sand  Star,  Key  West. 

40.  Ophiocoma  echinata.  Brittle  Star,  E.  Florida. 

41.  Asterias  sentus,          .  Round-ray e d  Star-fish,  K.  West. 

42.  Echinus.     (Sea  urchin.)        Key  West,  Florida. 

43.  Cast  off  shell  of  Sea-urchin.  Key  West,        " 

44.  Holothuria  Peruviana.     (Sea  cucumber.)        Coast  of  Peru. 

CRUSTACEA. 

45.  Rhjnchocinetus  typus.  Prawn,  Leaping.  Coast  of  Valparaiso. 

46.  Palaemon  Gaudichaudii.    (Prawn.)  Coast  of  Chili. 

47.  Pinnotheres  Chilensis.    (Golden  crab.)   Coast  of  Valparaiso. 

48.  Pilumnoides  perlatus.  Coast  of  Peru. 

49.  Porcellana  egregia.  Antilles. 

50.  Porcellana  acanthophora.  Coast  of  Valparaiso. 

CIRRIPEDIA. 

51.  Balanus  semiplicatus.  Acorn  Barnacle.  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Meridian. 

52.  Tetraclita  porosa.    (var.  Elegans.)  Common  Barnacle. 

West  Indies. 

53.  Pollicipes  ruber.    (Stalked  Barnacle.)  West  Coast  of  Mexico. 

CONCHIFERA. 

54..  Mytillus  hamatus.     (Mussel.)  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

55.  Pecten  ornatus.  (Decorated  Scallop.)  East  Florida. 

56.  Pecten  purpuratus.     (Scallop.)  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

57.  Pecten  laqueatus.    Guttered  scallop.  California. 


yiii  KEY   TO    OCEAN    LIFE. 

GASTEROPODA. 

58.  Eolidia  Patagonica.     (Sea-mouse.)  Coast  of  Patagonia. 

59.  Eolidia  inca.     (Sea-mouse.)  Coast  of  Chili. 

60.  Doris  Peruviana.     (Little  Doris.)  Coast  of  Lima. 

61.  Doris  Fontainii.     (Great  Doris.)  Coast  of  Chili. 

62.  Aplysia  livida.     (Sea  Hare.)  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

63.  Fissurella  costata.    Key-hole,  Limpet.  Coast  of  Chili. 

64.  Fissurella  Patagonica.  Umbrella  shell.  Coast  of  Patagonia. 

65.  Trochus  araucanus.     (Top  shell.)  Coast  of  Valparaiso. 

66.  Littorina  Peruviana.     (Winkle.)  Coast  of  Chili. 

67.  Scalaria  lineata.  .  .  Florida. 

68.  Natica  limbata.  .  Coast  of  Patagonia. 

69.  Sigaretus  neritoideus.     .  .  Coast  of  Peru. 

70.  Voluta  angulata.  .  Bay  of  San-Bias. 

71.  Murex  Patagonicus.    (Rock  Shell.)  Bay  of  San-Bias, 

Patagonia. 

72.  Cancellaria  tuberculosa.  Coast  of  Peru. 

PISCES. — FISHES. 

73.  Hippocampus  punctulatus.     (Little  Sea  Horse.) 

G-ulf  of  Mexico. 

74.  Fistularia  tabacaria.  (young)  Tobacco-pipe-fish. 

Coast  of  Brazil. 

75.  Clepticus  creolus.  Antilles. 


f  "* 


OCEAN  LIFE, 


ALGM. 

THE  Sea-weeds  belong  to  the  cellular  order  of  vegetables,  and 
to  the  Cryptogamic  class  of  the  Linnaean  system.  The  term 
Algae,  is  applied  to  a  vast  class  of  aquatic  plants,  many  of  which 
are  inhabitants  of  fresh  water.  Eut  the  highest  forms  are  those 
popularly  termed  Sea-weeds. 

"  The  root  among  the  Algae  is  rarely  much  developed.  They 
do  not,  in  a  general  way,  derive  nourishment  from  the  soil  on 
which  they  grow.  We  find  them  growing  indifferently  on  rocks 
of  various  mineralogical  character,  on  floating  timber,  on'  shells, 
on  iron,  or  other  metal,  on  each  other — in  fine,  on  any  substance 
which  is  long  submerged,  and  which  affords  a  foothold.  Into 
none  of  those  substances  do  they  emit  roots,  nor  do  we  find  that 
they  cause  their  decay,  or  appropriate  to  themselves  the  consti- 
tuents of  these  substances.  They  are  nourished  by  the  water 
that  surrounds  them,  and  the  various  substances  which  are  dis- 
solved in  it." 

"  On  whatever  substance  the  Algae  may  feed,  it  is  rarely  ob- 
tained through  the  intervention  of  a  root.  Dissolved  in  the  water 
that  bathes  the  whole  frond,  the  food  is  imbibed  equally  through 
all  the  cells  of  the  surface,  and  passes  from  cell  to  cell  toward 
those  parts  that  are  more  actively  assimilating,  or  growing  more 
rapidly.  The  root,  when  such  an  organ  exists,  is  a  mere  hold- 
fast, intended  to  keep  the  plant  fixed  to  a  base,  and  prevent  its 
being  driven  about  by  the  action  of  the  waves.  It  is  ordinarily 
a  simple  disc  or  conical  expansion  of  the  base  of  the  stem, 
strongly  applied  and  firmly  adhering  to  the  substance  on  which 
the  Algae  grows.  This  is  the  usual  form  among  all  the  smaller 
growing  kinds.  When,  however,  as  in  the  gigantic  Oar-weeds, 
the  frond  attains  a  large  size,  offering  a  proportionate  resistance 
to  the  waves,  the  central  disc  is  strengthened  by  lateral  hold- 
fasts or  discs  formed  at  the  bases  of  side  roots  emitted  by  the 
1 


2  OCEAN   LIFE. 

lower  part  of  the  stem.  The  only  instances  of  penetrating  roots 
among  the  Algae,  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  occur  in  certain 
genera  of  Sophoneae  and  in  the  Caulerpeae,  tropical  and  sub-tro- 
pical forms.  But  neither  in  these  cases  do  the  roots  appear  to 
differ  from  the  nature  of  holdfasts,  and  their  ramification  and 
extension  through  the  sand  is  probably  owing  to  the  unstable 
nature  of  such  a  soil.  It  is  not  in  search  of  nourishment,  but  of 
stability,  that  the  fibres  of  their  roots  are  put  forth,  like  so  many 
tendrils." 

Three  principal  varieties  of  color  are  generally  noticed  among 
the  Algae,  namely :  grass-green  or  herbaceous,  olive-green,  and 
red.  In  the  sub-division  of  Algae  into  three  groups,  the  color 
of  the  frond  is  employed  as  a  convenient  diagnostic  character. 
The  sea,  in  all  explored  latitudes,  has  a  vegetation  of  Algae.  To- 
warda  the  poles  this  is  restricted  to  microscopic  kinds,  but  almost 
as  soon  as  the  coast  rock  ceases  to  be  coated  with  ice,  it  begins 
to  be  clothed  with  Fuci.  Climate  has  an  effect  on  the  Algae  as 
upon  all  other  organic  bodies,  though  its  influence  is  less  percep- 
tible in  them  than  in  the  terrestrial  plants,  because  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  sea  is  much  less  variable  than  that  of  the  air.  Still, 
as  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  varies  with  the  latitude,  we  find 
in  the  marine  vegetation  a  corresponding  change ;  certain  groups 
being  confined  to  the  colder  regions  of  the  sea,  and  others  only 
vegetating  where  the  mean  temperature  is  considerable.  The 
uses  of  the  Algae  may  be  considered  under  two  points  of  view, 
namely :  the  general  office  which  this  great  class  of  plants,  as  a 
class,  discharges  in  the  economy  of  nature  ;  and  those  minor  use- 
ful applications  of  separate  species  which  man  selects  on  dis- 
covering that  they  can  yield  materials  to  supply  his  various 
wants.  The  part  committed  to  the  Algae  in  the  household  of 
nature,  though  humble  when  we  regard  them  as  the  lowest  organic 
members  in  that  great  family,  is  not  only  highly  important  to 
the  general  welfare  of  the  organic  world,  but,  indeed,  indispens- 
able. This  we  shall  at  once  admit,  when  we  reflect  on  the  vast 
preponderance  of  the  ocean  over  the  land  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  bear  in  mind  that  almost  the  whole  submarine  vegeta- 
tion consists  of  Algae. 

It  is  one  of  the  laws  of  nature,  that  animals  shall  feed  on 


OCEAN   LIFE.  3 

organized  matter,  and  vegetables  on  unorganized.  For  the  sup- 
port of  animal  life,  therefore,  we  require  vegetables  to  change 
the  mineral  constituents  of  the  surrounding  media  into  suitable 
nutriment.  In  the  sea  this  office  of  vegetation  is  almost  exclu- 
sively committed  to  the  Algae,  and  we  may  judge  of  the  complete- 
ness with  which  they  execute  their  mission  by  the  fecundity  of 
the  animal  world  which  depends  upon  them.  Not  that  I  would 
assert  that  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  marine  animals  are  directly 
dependent  on  the  Algae  for  their  food ;  for  the  reverse  is  noto- 
riously the  case.  But  in  every  class  we  find  species  which  derive 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  nourishment  from  the  Algae ;  and 
there  are  myriads  of  the  lower  in  organization  which  do  depend 
upon  them  altogether.  Among  the  higher  orders  of  Algae  feeders 
I  may  mention  the  Turtles,  whose  green  fat,  so  prized  by  Alder- 
manic  palate,  may  possibly  be  colored  by  the  unctuous  green 
juices  of  the  Caulerpae,  on  which  they  browse.  But  without 
further  notice  of  those  that  directly  depend  on  the  Algae,  it  is 
manifest  that  all  must  ultimately,  though  indirectly,  depend  on 
whatever  agency  in  the  first  instance  seizes  on  inorganic  matter, 
and  converts  it  into  living  substance  suitable  to  enter  into  the 
composition  of  animal  nerve  and  muscle.  And  this  agency  is 
assuredly  the  office  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  here  confined  in  the 
main  to  Algae ;  proving  that  they  are  indispensable  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  organic  life  in  the  sea.  They  also  keep  pure  the 
water  in  which  they  vegetate,  and  yield  a  considerable  portion 
of  oxygen  gas  to  the  atmosphere. 

The  Algae  have  served  as  food  both  for  man  and  cattle ;  and 
have  been  much  employed  in  agriculture  and  the  arts.  But  they 
have  proved  most  valuable  to  man,  in  affording  substances  which 
prove  highly  beneficial  in  the  treatment  of  disease. 


OCEAN    LIFE. 


PORIPHORA. 

THERE  are  certain  forms  of  organization  so  closely  allied  to 
both  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
say  precisely  in  which  they  ought  to  be  included.  Such  are  the 
Sponges,  which,  although  by  common  consent  admitted  into  the 
animal  series,  will  be  found  to  be  excluded,  by  almost  every 
point  of  their  structure,  from  all  the  definitions  of  an  animal 
hitherto  devised.  What  is  an  animal?  How  are  we  to  distin- 
guish it  as  contrasted  with  a  mineral  or  a  vegetable  ?  The  con- 
cise axiom  of  Linnaeus  upon  this  subject  is  well  known  :— "  Stones 
grow;  vegetables  grow  and  live;  animals  grow,  live,  and  feel." 
The  capability  of  feeling,  therefore,  formed,  in  the  opinion  of 
Linnaeus,  the  great  characteristic  separating  the  animal  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom;  yet,  in  the  class  before  us,  no  indication  of 
sensation  has  been  witnessed ;  contact,  however  rude,  excites  no 
movement  or  contraction  which  might  indicate  its  being  per- 
ceived; no  torture  has  ever  elicited  from  them  an  intimation  of 
suffering;  they  have  been  pinched  with  forceps,  lacerated  in  all 
directions,  bored  with  hot  irons,  and  attacked  with  the  most 
energetic  chemical  stimuli,  without  shrinking  or  exhibiting  the 
remotest  appearance  of  sensibility. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  vegetable  world  we  have  plants 
which  apparently  feel,  in  this  sense  of  the  word.  The  sensitive 
plant,  for  example,  which  droops  its  leaves  upon  the  slightest 
touch,  would  have  far  greater  claims  to  be  considered  as  being 
an  animal  than  the  Sponges,  of  which  we  are  speaking.  The 
best  definition  of  an  animal,  as  distinguished  from  a  vegetable, 
which  has  yet  been  given,  is,  that  whereas  the  latter,  fixed  in  the 
soil  by  roots,  or  immersed  perpetually  in  the  fluid  from  which  it 
derives  its  nourishment,  absorbs  by  its  whole  surface  the  nourish- 
ment which  it  requires ;  the  animal  being,  generally,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  capable  of  changing  its  position,  is  provided  with 
an  internal  receptacle  for  food,  or  stomachial  cavity,  from  whence, 
after  undergoing  the  process  of  digestion,  the  nutricious  matter 
is  taken  up.  But,  in  the  case  of  the  Sponge,  no  such  reservoir 
is  found,  and  in  its  place  we  find  only  anastamosing  canals  which 


OCEAN   LIFE.  5 

permeate  the  whole  body,  and  convey  the  circumambient  medium 
to  all  parts  of  the  porous  mass. — T.  Rymer  Jones. 

In  a  work  entitled  "  Principles  of  Zoology,  by  L.  Agassiz  and 
A.  A.  Gould,"  1856,  it  is  stated,  "  The  Sponges  have  so  great  a 
resemblance  to  some  of  the  polypi,  that  they  have  been  classed 
among  animals,  although  in  reality  they  belong  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom." 

Dr.  George  Johnson  says : — "  Sponge  is  a  light,  elastic,  porous 
substance,  formed  of  interlaced  horny  fibres,  producing,  by  their 
numerous  inosculations,  a  rude  sort  of  net  work,  with  meshes  or 
pores  of  unequal  size,  and  usually  of  a  square  or  rounded  angu- 
lated  figure.  Besides  these  pores,  there  are  some  circular  holes 
of  a  larger  size  (Oscula),  scattered  over  the  surface  of  most 
Sponges,  and  which  lead  into  sinuous  canals  that  permeate  their 
interior  in  every  direction.  The  oscula,  canals  and  pores,  com- 
municate freely  together,  for  the  structure  of  the  Sponge  is  alike 
throughout  the  mass,  or  at  most  the  texture  of  the  surface  is 
merely  a  little  more  compact  than  the  inner  parts.  The  charac- 
teristic property  of  Sponge  is  the  facility  with  which  it  imbibes  a 
large  quantity  of  any  fluid,  more  especially  of  water,  which  is  re- 
tained amid  the  meshes  until  forced  out  again  by  a  sufficient  degree 
of  compression,  when  the  specimen  returns  elastic  to  its  former 
bulk.  From  this  peculiarity,  combined  with  its  pleasant  soft- 
ness, arises  the  value  of  Sponge,  (the  dried  Sponge  is  only  the 
skeleton  of  the  living  animal.)  When  the  Sponge  is  living  and 
recent,  its  canals  and  pores  are  filled  with  a  glairy,  colorless 
fluid,  like  the  white  of  an  egg,  which  flows  freely  out  on  the  re- 
moval of  the  Sponge  from  the  water.  The  quantity  of  this  fluid 
varies  according  to  the  species.  In  some  it  is  copious,  even  to 
nauseousness,  but  in  the  compact  Halichondrise  there  is  little  of 
it,  and  in  the  firm,  inelastic,  and  calcareous  Grantise  it  appears 
to  be  entirely  wanting."  u  It  has  an  unctuous  feel,  emits  a  fishy 
odor  when  burnt,  leaves  a  thin  film  or  membrane  when  evaporat- 
ed, and  appears  to  the  naked  eye  transparent,  colorless,  and 
homogeneous,  like  the  colorless  part  of  an  egg  ;  but  when  a  drop 
of  it  is  examined  on  a  plate  of  glass,  under  the  microscope,  it 
appears  entirely  composed  of  very  minute,  transparent,  spheri- 
cal or  ovate  granules,  like  monades,  with  some  moisture.  These 


6  OCEAN   LIFE. 

monade-like  bodies,  nearly  all  of  the  same  size  and  form,  resemble 
the  pellucid  granules  or  vesicles,  which  Trembley  has  represented 
as  composing  the  whole  texture  of  the  Hydrse,  or  the  soft  granular 
matter  we  observe  in  the  stems  of  living  Sertularise  ;  and,  indeed, 
most  of  the  fleshy  parts  of  organized  bodies  appear  to  be  com- 
posed of  similar  pellucid,  granular,  or  monade-like  bodies  in  dif- 
ferent states  of  aggregation."  The  composition  of  the  skeleton 
or  fibrous  portion  of  the  Sponge  is  remarkably  diversified.  Its 
liquid  food  is  not  received  into  any  cavity,  but  permeates  to  all 
points,  and  is  equally  elaborated  in  every  part  of  the  system, 
which,  in  one  sense,  is  an  unconfined  digestive  cavity,  where  the 
various  ingredients  are  selected,  separated,  and  fitted  for  appro- 
priation by  each  species,  agreeably  to  its  nature.  For  example, 
it  is  very  common  to  find  growing  on  the  same  rock  or  sea  weed, 
a  siliceous,  a  calcareous,  and  a  horny  sponge ;  they  have  all  the 
same  exposure,  and  are  all  recipients  of  the  same  nutriment,  yet 
does  each  act  upon  this  differently.  One  extracts  from  the  fluid 
silica,  which  it  causes  to  assume  a  solid  crystalline  form  ;  another 
selects,  in  the  same  manner,  the  calcareous  particles  which  obe- 
dient to  the  laws  of  life,  assume  figures  novel  to  them  in  their 
mineral  state ;  and,  again,  another  rejects  both  the  lime  and 
the  flint  as  injurious  to  its  constitution.  Sponges  appear  to  be 
true  Zoophytes,  and  it  imparts  additional  interest  to  their  study 
to  consider  them,  as  they  possibly  are,  the  first  matrix  and  cradle 
of  organic  life,  and  exhibiting  before  us  the  lowest  organizations 
compatible  with  its  existence. 

Dr.  Grant,  to  whom  we  are  chiefly  indebted  for  the  physiology 
of  Sponge,  was  the  first  to  establish  the  fact  of  a  continued  cur- 
rent (except  when  interrupted  by  the  will  of  the  animal,)  moving 
from  without  into  the  interior  of  its  body,  and  thence  passing 
through  large  channels  to  find  an  exit  by  the  oscula  or  mouths 
again,  from  the  exterior  surface.  Dr.  Grant  observes  : — "  I  put 
a  small  branch  of  Spongia  coalita,  with  some  sea  water,  into  a 
watch  glass,  so  as  to  bring  one  of  the  apertures  on  the  side  of 
the  Sponge  fully  into  view  under  the  microscope,  and  I  beheld 
for  the  first  time  the  splendid  spectacle  of  this  living  fountain 
vomiting  forth,  from  a  circular  cavity,  an  impetuous  torrent  of 
liquid  matter,  and  hurling  along,  in  rapid  succession,  opaque 


OCEAN   LIFE.  7 

masses,  which  it  strewed  every  where  around.  The  beauty  and 
novelty  of  such  a  scene  in  the  animal  kingdom  long  arrested  my 
attention  ;  but,  after  twenty -five  minutes  of  constant  observation, 
I  was  obliged  to  withdraw  my  eye  from  fatigue,  without  having 
seen  the  torrent  for  one  instant  change  its  direction,  or  diminish 
in  the  slightest  degree  the  rapidity  of  its  course.  I  continued  to 
watch  the  same  orifice,  at  short  intervals,  for  five  hours — some- 
times observing  it  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  at  a  time — but  still 
the  stream  rolled  on  with  a  constant  and  equal  velocity ;  the  cur- 
rent then  gradually  diminished,  and  ceased  in  about  an  hour." 
Dr.  Grant,  in  referring  to  experiments  made  with  the  crumb  of 
bread  sponge,  (Halichondria  panicea,)  a  common  species  on  the 
British  coast,  remarks : — "  Two  entire  round  portions  of  this 
Sponge  were  placed  together  in  a  glass  of  sea  water,  with  their 
orifices  opposite  to  each  other  at  the  distance  of  two  inches ; 
they  appeared  to  the  naked  eye  like  two  living  batteries,  and 
soon  covered  each  other  with  feculent  matter.  I  placed  one  of 
them  in  a  shallow  vessel,  and  just  covered  its  surface  and  highest 
orifice  with  water.  On  strewing  some  powdered  chalk  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  the  currents  were  visible  at  a  great  distance  ; 
and  on  placing  some  small  pieces  of  cork,  or  dry  paper,  over  the 
apertures,  I  could  perceive  them  moving  by  the  force  of  the  cur- 
rent at  the  distance  of  ten  feet  from  the  table  on  which  the  speci- 
men rested.  Naturalists  have  long  suspected  the  presence  of 
very  minute  cilia  in  the  gelatinous  flesh  of  the  sponge,  and  were 
inclined  to  attribute  the  currents  to  their  agency ;  but  as  yet, 
they  had  been  unable  to  detect  them  by  the  closest  scrutiny, 
when  Dr.  Dobie,  and  afterwards  Mr.  Bowerbank,  discovered 
them  in  motion  in  living  Sponges.  It  was  in  the  sack  Sponge, 
(Crrantia  compressa,}  which  has  the  form  of  a  little  flattened  bag, 
of  an  angular  outline,  of  a  whitish  hue,  with  an  orifice  at  each 
angle,  that  the  experienced  eyes  of  these  gentlemen  detected  the 
moving  cilia.  "  By  tearing  specimens  in  pieces,  (for  the  use  of 
the  keenest  cutting  instruments  so  crushed  the  texture  as  to  de- 
stroy the  parts,)  and  examining  the  separated  edges,  with  high 
powers,  Mr.  Bowerbank  found  that  the  sides  are  composed  of  a 
number  of  hexagonal  cells,  defined  by  the  peculiar  arrangement 
of  the  triradiate  spiculae,  and  having  their  walls  formed  by  a 


8  OCEAN   LIFE. 

number  of  nucleated  granules ;  these  angular  cells  are  laid  at  right 
angles  to  the  long  axis  of  the  Sponge,  extending  from  the  outer 
surface  to  the  inner,  and  they  are  crossed  near  the  middle  by  a 
thin  partition,  perforated  in  the  centre.  In  this  perforation, 
several  long,  whip-like  cilia  were  seen  lashing  with  energy,  and 
the  same  organs  were  afterwards  found  to  be  connected  with  the 
granules  of  which  the  cell  walls  were  composed.  By  means  of  the 
waving  of  these  cilia,  then,  the  water  is  made  to  flow  through  the 
cells  from  without,  being  discharged  into  the  interior  of  the  sack 
and  poured  out  in  streams  through  the  oscula  or  openings  which 
terminate  the  angles  of  the  Sponge." 

This  experiment,  we  think,  leaves  no  doubt  of  the  animal  na- 
ture of  Sponge.  "  If  a  Sponge  be  mechanically  divided  into 
several  pieces,  every  portion  becomes  a  distinct  animal.  The 
multiplication  of  Sponges,  however,  is  effected  in  another  man- 
ner, which  is  the  ordinary  mode  of  their  reproduction,  and  forms 
a  very  interesting  portion  of  their  history.  At  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  if  a  living  Sponge  be  cut  to  pieces,  the  channels  in 
its  interior  are  found  to  have  their  walls  studded  with  yellowish 
gelatinous  granules,  developed  in  the  paranchymatous  tissue; 
these  granules  are  the  germs  or  gemmules  from  which  a  future 
race  will  spring ;  they  seem  to  be  formed  indifferently  in  all  parts 
of  the  mass,  sprouting,  as  it  were,  from  the  albuminous  crust  that 
coats  the  skeleton,  without  the  appearance  of  any  organs  espe- 
cially appropriated  to  their  development. 

As  they  increase  in  size  they  are  found  to  project  more  and 
more  into  the  canals  ramifying  through  the  Sponge,  and  to  be 
provided  with  an  apparatus  of  locomotion,  of  a  description  such 
as  we  shall  frequently  have  occasion  to  mention. 

The  gemmule  assumes  an  ovoid  form,  and  a  large  portion  of 
its  surface  becomes  covered  with  innumerable  vibrating  hairs,  or 
cilia,  as  they  are  denominated  ;  these  are  of  inconceivable  mi- 
nuteness, yet  individually  capable  of  exercising  rapid  movements, 
whereby  they  produce  currents  in  the  surrounding  fluid.  As 
soon,  therefore,  as  a  gemmule  becomes  sufficiently  mature,  it  be- 
comes detached  from  the  nidus  where  it  was  formed,  and,  being 
whirled  along  by  the  issuing  streams,  is  expelled  through  the 
fecal  orifices  of  the  parent,  and  escapes  into  the  water  around. 


OCEAN   LIFE.  9 

Instead,  however,  of  falling  to  the  bottom,  as  so  apparently 
helpless  a  particle  of  jelly  might  be  expected  to  do,  the  cease- 
less vibration  of  the  cilia  upon  its  surface  propels  it  rapidly 
along,  until,  being  removed  to  a  considerable  distance  from  its 
original,  it  attaches  itself  to  a  proper  object,  and,  losing  the  now 
useless  locomotive  cilia,  it  becomes  fixed  and  motionless,  and 
develops  within  its  substance  the  skeleton  peculiar  to  its  species, 
exhibiting  by  degrees  the  form  of  the  individual  from  which  it 
sprung. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  the  remarkable  exception  which 
Sponges  exhibit  to  the  usual  phenomena  witnessed  in  the  repro- 
duction of  animals,  the  object  of  which  is  evident  as  the  result  is 
admirable.  The  parent  Sponge,  deprived  of  all  power  of  move- 
ment, would  obviously  be  incapable  of  dispersing  to  a  distance 
the  numerous  progeny  which  it  furnishes.  They  must  inevitably 
have  accumulated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their  place  of 
birth,  without  the  possibility  of  their  distribution  to  other  locali- 
ties. 

The  seeds  of  vegetables,  sometimes  winged  and  plumed  for  the 
purpose,  are  blown  about  by  the  winds,  or  transported  by  various 
agencies  to  distant  places ;  but  in  the  present  instance,  the  still 
waters  in  which  Sponges  grow  would  not  have  served  to  trans- 
port their  progeny  elsewhere ;  and  germs  so  soft  and  delicate 
could  hardly  be  removed  by  other  creatures.  Instead,  therefore, 
of  being  helpless  at  their  birth,  the  young  Sponges  can,  by  means 
of  their  cilia,  row  themselves  about  at  pleasure,  and  enjoy  for  a 
period,  powers  of  locomotion  denied  to  their  adult  state. 


ZOOPHYTES  OF   OLD  AUTHORS. 

POLYPS  are  gelatinous,  oblong,  or  conical  animals,  with  a  con- 
tractile body,  an  intestinal  cavity,  and  an  oval  aperture,  which 
is  surrounded  by  a  circlet  of  arms  or  tentacles.  Besides  these 
arms,  there  are  no  special  organs  of  sense,  at  least  in  the  greater 

2  •" 


10  OCEAN   LIFE. 

number  of  Polyps,  though  all  appear  to  be  very  sensible  to  the 
stimulus  of  light.  Propagation  is  effected  partly  by  eggs,  partly 
by  germs  or  buds ;  in  many  instances  the  last  are  not  detached 
from  the  parent  stem,  and  thus  there  arise  compound  animals, 
different  individuals  being  connected.  Our  Polyps  were,  for  the 
most  part,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  and  under  this  name  entirely 
unknown.  By  it  they  understood  naked  molluscs  of  the  form  of 
the  sepia,  especially  that  genus  which  is  now  called  Octopus  by 
Zoologists.  From  analogy,  and  from  some  resemblance  of  form, 
Reaumer  and  Jussieu  first  gave  the  name,  Polyp,  to  those  fresh 
water  animals  that  had  been  described  by  Trembley,  and  which 
were  provided  with  a  circlet  of  arms. 

To  this  class  belong  many  marine  animals,  which,  at  first  sight, 
rather  resemble  plants  than  animals.  Formerly,  these  so-called 
sea  plants  were,  on  account  of  the  hardness  of  the  calcareous 
substance  of  which  they  consist,  referred  to  the  mineral  kingdom, 
and  corals  were  compared  to  branching  crystallizations  (Arbor 
Dianse)  and  stalactites. 

The  ancients  believed  that  corals  were  soft  whilst  in  the  sea, 
and  only  became  hard  in  air. 

Even  among  later  authors,  traces  may  be  found  of  the  same 
opinion,  founded  on  defective  observation,  or  on  confusion  of  soft 
species  with  hard  ones. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  was  the  prevailing 
view  that  these  corals  belonged  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Mar- 
sigli,  in  1706,  observed,  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  some 
of  these  products,  (Alcyonium,  Corallium,  Antipathes,)  and  found 
in  their  pores  little  bodies  that  contracted  when  the  stem  was 
removed  from  the  water.  Such  bodies,  or  buds,  he  took  to  be 
flowers,  and  so  believed,  that  at  length  the  view  was  definitely 
established,  which  consigned  these  marine  products  to  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  But  still,  the  animal  odor  which  was  observed, 
opposed  this  view,  as  well  as  the  chemical  investigations  of  Geof- 
froy,  of  Lemery,  and  of  Marsigli  himself,  which  demonstrated 
ammoniacal  constituents  in  the  supposed  sea-plants,  just  as  in 
animal  substances.  Peysonnel,  a  physician  of  Marseilles,  in 
1723,  upon  repeated  examinations,  found  Marsigli's  plants  to  be 
animals. 


OCEAN   LIFE.  11 

Reaumer  thought  this  notion  very  improbable,  but  after  the 
discovery  was  confirmed  by  Trembley  and  Bernard  de  Jussieu, 
(a  celebrated  botanist,)  he  adopted  the  views  of  Peysonnel,  and 
Linnaeus  accordingly  transferred  the  coral  and  stone  plants  to 
the  animal  kingdom.  Polyps  are  either  naked,  or  are  provided 
with  a  body  more  or  less  hard,  which  they  surround  like  a  bark, 
or  by  which  they  are  surrounded. 


SERTULARID^E. 

IN  the  Sertularian  Hydrozoa,  the  fleshy  substance  of  the  ani- 
mal is  inclosed  in  a  ramose,  horny  sheath,  which  it  traverses  like 
the  pith  of  a  tree,  following  all  of  the  ramifications  of  the  branched 
stem  or  polypary.  The  general  stem  of  the  polypary  is  entirely 
filled  with  a  fleshy  substance,  exactly  resembling,  in  its  nature, 
the  tissue  composing  the  body  of  the  polyp,  whereby  all  the  indi- 
viduals belonging  to  the  common  stock  are  brought  into  com- 
munication with  each  other.  "  The  Hydroida  excel  all  other 
Zoophytical  productions  in  delicacy,  and  the  graceful  arrange- 
ment of  their  forms,  some  borrowing  the  forms  of  the  prettiest 
marine  plants,  others  assuming  the  semblance  of  the  ostrich 
plume,  while  the  variety  and  elegance  exhibited  in  the  figures 
and  sculpture  of  their  miniature  cups  and  chalices  is  only  limited 
by  the  number  of  their  species." 

In  the  Sertularidce,  "  the  whole  compound  animal  is  inclosed 
in  a  tube  of  transparent  substance,  somewhat  flexible,  though 
firm,  resembling  horn,  an  exudation  from  the  gelatinous  integu- 
ment, and  this  tube,  at  every  bud,  takes  the  form  of  an  open  cell 
or  cup,  (varying  much  in  shape,  according  to  the  species,)  into 
the  cavity  of  which  each  individual  polyp  head  can  withdraw 
itself  on  alarm,  and  from  the  orifice  of  which  it  protrudes  and  ex- 
pands when  seeking  prey. 

These  little  Polyps  provide  nourishment  for  the  whole.  On 
examining  a  piece  of  one  of  these  polyparies  with  a  good  glass, 


12  OCEAN   LIFE. 

the  tubular  horny  envelope  is  seen  to  be  filled  with  granular 
matter,  and  on  attentively  watching  it,  globules  will  be  seen 
moving  in  different  directions,  producing  a  sort  of  circulation, 
or  cyclosis,  very  much  resembling  what  is  observable  in  some 
plants.  The  globules  thus  moving,  do  not  appear  to  be  con- 
tained in  vessels,  but  steal  in  slow  currents,  ascending  along  the 
sides  and  returning  down  the  middle  in  an  opposite  direction. 

It  is  interesting  to  view  these  Polyps  with  a  microscope  : 
"  Protruding  themselves  beyond  the  mouths  of  their  cells,  they 
inflect  their  bodies  in  all  directions  in  quest  of  prey,  waiting 
until  some  passing  body  impinges  upon  their  tentacula,  which  is 
at  once  seized  and  conveyed  into  the  stomach  with  a  rapidity 
and  dexterity  almost  beyond  belief.  The  multiplication  of  these 
singular  animals  appears  to  take  place  in  three  different  modes : 
first,  by  cuttings,  as  in  plants ;  second,  by  offshoots,  or  the  forma- 
tion of  new  branches  bearing  Polyps ;  and,  third,  by  gemrnules 
capable  of  locomotion.  The  first  mode  strikingly  resembles  what 
is  observed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  for,  as  every  branch  of 
the  plant-like  body  contains  all  the  parts  necessary  to  independ- 
ent existence,  it  can  hardly  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  any  por- 
tion, separated  from  the  rest,  will  continue  to  grow  and  perform 
all  the  functions  of  the  entire  animal. 

"  The  second  mode  of  increase,  namely,  by  the  formation  of  new 
branches  and  Polyps,  seems  more  like  the  growth  of  a  plant  than 
the  development  of  an  animal.  We  will  consider  it  under  two 
points  of  view :  first,  as  regards  the  elongation  of  the  stem ; 
secondly,  as  relates  to  the  formation  of  fresh  cells  containing  the 
nutritive  Polyps.  On  examining  any  growing  branch,  it  will  be 
found  to  be  soft  and  open  at  the  extremity,  and  through  the  ter- 
minal orifice,  the  soft  tegumentary  membrane  above  described,  as 
forming  the  tube,  is  seen  to  protrude ;  the  skeleton  is  not,  there- 
fore, merely  secreted  by  the  inclosed  living  granular  matter,  but 
it  is  the  investing  membrane,  which  continually  shoots  upwards 
and  deposits  hard  material  in  its  substance,  as  it  assumes  the  form, 
and  spreads  into  the  ramifications  peculiar  to  its  species. 

"  Having  thus  lengthened  the  stem  to  a  certain  distance,  the 
next  step  is  the  formation  of  a  cell  and  a  new  Polyp,  which  is 
accomplished  in  the  following  manner :  The  newly  formed  branch 


OCEAN   LIFE.  13 

has  at  first  precisely  the  appearance  and  structure  of  the  rest  of 
the  stalk  of  the  Zoophyte,  being  filled  with  granular  matter,  and 
exhibiting  in  its  interior  the  circulation  of  globules  already  de- 
scribed, moving  towards  the  extremity  along  the  sides  of  the  tube, 
and  in  an  opposite  course  in  the  middle ;  the  end  of  the  branch, 
however,  before  soft  and  rounded,  soon  becomes  perceptibly  di- 
lated. After  a  few  hours,  the  branch  is  visibly  longer,  its  extre- 
mity more  swollen,  and  the  living  pith  is  seen  partially  to  have 
separated  itself  from  the  sides  of  the  tube,  the  boundaries  of  which 
become  more  defined  and  undulating.  The  growth  still  proceed- 
ing, the  extremity  is  distinctly  dilated  into  a  cell,  in  which  the 
soft  substance  seems  to  be  swollen  out,  so  as  to  give  a  rude  out- 
line to  the  bell-shaped  Polyp,  but  no  tentaculae  are  yet  distin- 
guishable. A  rudimentary  septum  is  now  visible,  stretching  across 
the  bottom  of  the  cell,  through  the  centre  of  which  the  granular 
matter,  now  collected  into  a  mass  occupying  but  a  portion  of  the 
stem,  is  seen  to  pass.  The  Polyp  and  cell  gradually  grow  more 
distinct,  and  the  tentaculse  become  distinguishable.  As  the  de- 
velopment proceeds,  the  tentaculae  become  more  perfect,  and  the 
Polyp  at  length  rises  from  its  cell  to  exercise  the  functions  for 
which  it  is  destined.  The  third  mode  of  multiplication,  or  that 
by  reproductive  gemmules,  seems  to  be  especially  adapted  to  the 
diffusion  of  the  species,  and  is  peculiar  to  Zoophytes  of  this  de- 
scription. At  certain  periods  of  the  year,  besides  the  ordinary 
cells  which  contain  nutritive  Polyps,  others  are  developed  from 
different  parts  of  the  stems,  which  may  be  called  female  or  fertile 
Polyps,  although  usually  simply  termed  the  vesicles.  The  cells 
of  this  kind  are  much  larger  than  the  nutritive  cells,  and  of  very 
different  forms;  they  are,  moreover,  deciduous,  falling  off  after 
the  fulfilment  of  the  office  for  which  they  are  provided.  They 
are  produced  in  the  same  manner  as  the  rest  of  the  stem,  by  an 
extension  of  the  tegumentary  membrane,  which,  as  it  expands 
into  the  form  of  the  cell,  becomes  of  a  horny  texture.  It  may  be 
traced,  however,  over  the  opening  of  the  cavity,  where  it  some- 
times forms  a  movable  operculum." 

Now,  within  this  tall,  transparent,  vase-like  capsule,  by  a  series 
of  gradual  changes,  the  common  nutrient  flesh  develops  a  very 
peculiar  embryo.  "  When  somewhat  mature,  the  permeating  tube 


14  OCEAN   LIFE. 

is  seen  swollen  out  into  separate  ovate  sacks,  ten  or  more  in  num- 
ber, each  of  which  contains  several  embryos.  Those  nearest  the 
mouth  of  the  vesicle  are  first  developed,  and  escape  successively 
by  slowly  emerging  from  the  pitcher-like  rim."  This  little 
medusa-like  creature,  freed  from  its  parent  cell,  has  the  power 
of  moving  about  rapidly  in  all  directions  through  the  water. 

Mr.  Peach,  who  first  observed  them,  says  : — "  They  resemble 
umbrellas  without  handles,  or  very  wide  and  short  hand  bells." 
He  also  remarks  : — "  They  assume  various  positions,  and,  when 
in  the  water,  remind  me  of  thousands  of  parachutes  thrown  from 
a  balloon,  descending  in  various  states  of  expansion."  The  phe- 
nomena of  which  we  have  spoken,  strikingly  illustrate  the  law 
known  as  "  the  alternation  of  generations,"  and  may  be  briefly 
summed  up  as  follows :— "  The  Polype,  a  fixed  and  rooted  ani- 
mal, increases  its  own  individual  life  for  awhile,  by  putting  forth 
a  succession  of  budding  heads,  but  at  a  certain  period  gives  birth 
to  a  number  of  beings  that  bear  no  resemblance  to  itself  in  form 
or  habit,  but  are,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  free,  swimming 
medusae.  Each  of  these,  after  pursuing  its  giddy  course  for  a 
time,  produces  a  number  of  eggs,  which  change  into  active  ani- 
mals, having  the  closest  resemblance  to  infusoria.  Each  of  these 
latter  presently  becomes  stationary,  and  affixed  to  some  foreign 
body,  along  which  it  creeps  as  a  root  thread,  shooting  up  tubular 
and  celled  Polypes. 

"  Hence,  any  one  individual  is  not  at  all  like  its  mother  or  its 
daughter,  but  exactly  resembles  its  grandmother  or  its  grand- 
daughter." In  other  words,  the  alternations  are  as  follows: — 
1.  The  medusa  produces  eggs.  2.  The  eggs,  after  passing  through 
an  infusorial  state,  become  Polypes,  like  Corynae,  Tubulariae,  or 
Campanulariae.  3.  The  Polype  produces  a  kind  of  bud  that 
finally  drops  off  and  becomes  a  medusa.  Thus,  the  egg  of  a  Me- 
dusa, in  such  cases,  does  not  produce  a  Medusa  except  after  going 
through  the  intermediate  state  of  the  Polype.  Or,  if  we  com- 
mence with  the  Polype,  the  series  is :  1.  The  Polype  produces 
bulbs  that  become  Medusae.  2.  The  Medusae  produce  eggs. 
3.  The  eggs  produce  Polypes. 


OCEAN   LIFE. 


ANTHOZOA    ASTEROIDA. 

G-orgonida. — THE  generic  characters  of  Gorgonia  are  thus 
described  by  Johnson.  "Polype,  mass  rooted,  arborescent,  con- 
sisting of  central  axis,  barked  with  a  polypiferous  crust ;  the 
axis,  horny,  continuous,  and  flexible,  branched  in  co-equality 
with  the  polype  mass ;  the  crust  when  recent,  soft  and  fleshy, 
when  dried,  porous  and  friable ;  the  orifices  of  the  polype  cells, 
more  or  less  protuberant." 

In  the  Hydroid  Zoophytes,  it  was  observed  that  the  horny 
skeleton  formed,  as  it  were,  a  case,  or  external  support  for  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  animal  and  its  polypes,  which  in  the  asteroid 
groups,  included  in  the  families  of  Pennatulidae  and  Gorgonidse, 
the 'skeleton  consists  of  a  central  horny  or  calcareous  axis, 
around  which  arc  arranged  the  polype,  bearing  fleshy  parts. 
"  These  horn  plants  grow  with  the  stem  and  branches  upwards ; 
the  latter  are  usually  situated  in  a  plane  and  often  coalesce. 
Many  earlier  and  later  writers,  have  believed  the  stem  to  be  a 
plant,  on  which  polypes  had  fixed  themselves.  In  the  Gorgonia, 
a  beautiful  frame-work  of  horny  matter,  consisting  of  a  stem, 
and  a  minute  net  work  of  branches,  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
structure ;  and  this  is  clothed  with  a  soft  flesh,  through  which 
the  channels  pass  that  connect  the  polypes  together.  This 
plant  is  covered  with  a  firm  skin,  in  which  a  great  amount  of 
earthy  crystals  is  deposited,  so  as  to  form  a  crust,  and  in  this, 
are  the  hollows  or  cells  by  which  the  polypes  are  protected.  In 
the  dead  structures  with  which  we  are  familiar,  under  the  name 
of  sea  fans  (Gorgonia  flabellum)  the  dark  horny  flexible  stem,  is 
seen  to  be  covered  in  many  parts  with  a  brittle  crust,  often  brightly 
colored,  which  can  be  scaled  off  and  crumbled  to  powder.  Be- 
tween the  two,  in  the  living  state,  the  fleshy  coat  existed ;  the 
inner  part  of  it,  being  in  contact  with  the  exterior  of  the  horny 
stem,  which  was  then  soft,  and  scarcely  distinct  from  it,  while 
the  exterior  part  was  consolidated  by  the  earthy  matter  into  the 
firm  integument.  The  animals  (in  Gorgonia)  may  be  scattered 
irregularly  over  the  whole  surface,  or  they  may  range  in  series 
or  bands,  on  opposite  sides  only,  of  the  stems  and  branches.  The 


16  OCEAN   LIFE. 

cortex  consists  of  the  layer  of  Polypes,  with  a  variable  propor- 
tion of  calcareous  matter,  secreted  within  their  texture  ;  it  is  at 
times,  like  paper  in  thinness,  and  in  other  species,  is  thick  and 
spongy."  In  the  Gorgonia  verrucosa,  Cavolini  states  that  the  ova, 
which  are  developed  in  an  ovarium,  situated  at  the  base  of  each 
polype,  doubtless  in  the  meso-gastric  folds,  are  discharged  by 
eight  small  pores,  situated  at  the  bases  of  the  eight  tentacles. 
The  ova  escape  as  ciliated  'planulcB*  (planus  flat,  applied  to 
flat  ciliated  forms  of  larva,)  of  an  ovoid  form,  which  emerge 
from  the  ovarian  pores  with  their  small  end  foremost.  In  the 
month  of  June,  a  Gorgonia,  six  inches  in  height,  discharged 
ninety  such  larva  in  the  space  of  an  hour.  They  first  rose  spi- 
rally towards  the  surface  of  the  water,  then  swam  horizontally. 
They  have  the  same  property  as  the  ciliated  planulse  of  the 
marine  -Hydrozoa,  of  changing  their  form,  by  the  contraction  of 
their  tissue,  a  property  which  the  ciliated  zoopores  of  sponges 
and  algae  do  not  possess.  When  the  larva  of  the  Gorgonia 
rested,  they  attached  themselves  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  con- 
taining them,  by  their  larger  end.  The  hues  of  Gorgonidae  are 
gorgeous  and  varied.  The  brightest  red,  crimson,  purple,  orange, 
and  yellow  are  common,  besides  white,  brown,  and  black,  and  the 
polypes  add  other  and  more  delicate  tints,  when  their  star-like 
flowers  are  in  full  blossom. 


PENNATULID^E. 

SUB-ORDER  Alcyonaria,  unattached,  either  free,  or  with  their 
base  burned.  These  zoophytes  are  either  flat  plates,  simple 
stems,  or  plume-like  fronds.  The  polypes  occur  on  one  or  both 
sides  of  the  stem  or  branches,  and,  in  a  single  genus,  (Umbel- 
lularia)  form  a  cluster  at  the  extremity.  The  base  of  the  zoo- 
phyte is  oftvn  somewhat  enlarged,  and  some  species,  by  means 
of  it,  are  planted  in  the  mud.  The  greater  part  of  them  secrete 
a  slender,  solid  axis,  along  the  main  stem  or  mid-rib  of  the  frond, 


OCEAN   LIFE.  17 

which  is  either  cartilaginous  or  calcareous.     (The  polypi  have  the 
general  characteristics  of  Alcyonia). 

The  Renilla  Americana,  resembles  a  thick  reniform  leaf,  with 
a  short  pedicle.  In  the  contracted  state,  the  upper  surface  is 
sprinkled  with  minute  white  dots  and  larger  sub-stellate  spots, 
about  three-fourths  of  a  line  in  diameter.  The  former,  under 
the  microscope,  consist  of  eight  points,  and  are  probably  young 
budding  polypes ;  the  larger  are  adult  polypes  and  are  about  a 
line  apart.  The  general  surface  is  fitted  with  minute  calcareous 
spicula,  seen  only  under  a  magnifier.  Below,  the  zoophyte  is 
venously  striate,  and  the  caudal  appendage  is  longitudinally  sul- 
cate  and  transversely  fine  rugate. 

ACTINIADJE  .—(Sea  Anemones.} 

"  A  SEA  anemone,  is  a  radiate  animal,  or  actiniform  polype. 
Character. — Animal  single,  fleshy,  elongate  or  conical,  capable  of 
extending  or  contracting  itself,  fixed  by  its  base,  but  with  the 
power  of  locomotion.  Mouth,  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  disc, 
very  dilatable,  surrounded  by  one  or  more  rows  of  tentacula. 
Oviparous  and  viviparous  ;  marine." — A  sea  anemone  is  a  heliah- 
thoid  or  sun-flower  shaped  polype.  "  This  family  of  polypes, 
from  the  fibrous  character  which  the  substance  of  their  body  as- 
sumes, have  been  named  by  zoologists,  '  Fleshy  Polypes.'  The 
body  of  an  Actinia,  when  moderately  expanded,  is  a  fleshy  cylin- 
der, attached  by  one  extremity  to  a  rock  or  some  other  sub-ma- 
rine support ;  whilst  the  opposite  end  is  surmounted  by  numerous 
tentacula,  arranged  in  several  rows  around  the  oval  aperture, 
when  these  tentacula  are  expanded,  they  give  the  animal  the 
appearance  of  a  flower,  a  resemblance  which  is  rendered  more 
striking  by  the  beautiful  colors  which  they  not  unfrequently  as- 
sume ;  and  hence,  in  all  countries,  they  have  been  looked  upon 
by  the  uninformed  as  sea-flowers,  and  distinguished  by  names 
indicative  of  the  fancied  resemblance.  Their  animal  nature  is 
soon,  however,  rendered  evident,  by  a  little  attention,  to  their 
habits.  When  expanded  at  the  bottom  of  the  shallow  pools  of 
salt  water  left  by  the  retreating  tide,  they  are  seen  to  manifest 
3 


18  OCEAN    LIFE. 

a  degree  of  sensibility,  and  power  of  spontaneous  movement,  which 
we  should  little  anticipate  from  their  general  aspect.  A  cloud 
veiling  the  sun  will  cause  their  tentacles  to  fold,  a»  though  ap- 
prehensive of  danger  from  the  passing  shadows ;  contact,  how- 
ever slight,  will  make  them  shrink  from  the  touch;  and  if  rudely 
assailed,  they  completely  contract  their  bodies,  so  as  to  take  the 
appearance  of  a  hard  coriaceous  mass,  hardly  distinguishable 
from  the  substance  to  which  they  are  attached. 

"  The  Actiniae,  like  the  Hydras,  possess  the  power  of  chang- 
ing their  position.  They  often  elongate  their  bodies,  and  re- 
maining fixed  by  the  base,  stretch  from  side  to  side,  as  if 
seeking  food  at  a  distance  ;  they  can  even  change  their  place,  by 
gliding  upon  the  disc  which  supports  them,  or  detaching  them- 
selves entirely,  and  swelling  themselves  with  water,  they  become 
of  nearly  the  same  specific  gravity  as  the  element  which  they 
inhabit,  and  the  least  agitation  is  sufficient  to  drive  them  else- 
where :  when  they  wish  to  fix  themselves  they  expel  the  water 
from  their  distended  body,  and  sinking  to  the  bottom,  attach 
themselves  again  by  the  disc  at  their  base,  which  forms  a  power- 
ful sucker.  From  this  sketch  of  the  outward  form  of  these 
polypes,  we  will  be  prepared  to  examine  their  internal  economy, 
and  the  more  minute  details  of  their  structure.  On  examining 
attentively  the  external  structure  of  the  body,  it  is  seen  to  be 
covered  with  a  thick  mucous  layer,  resembling  a  soft  epidermis, 
which  extending  over  the  tentacula  and  the  fold  around  the 
aperture  of  the  mouth,  is  found  to  coat  the  surface  of  the 
stomach  itself;  this  epidermic  secretion  forms,  in  fact,  a  deciduous 
tunic  which  the  creature  can  throw  off  at  intervals.  On  remov- 
ing this,  the  walls  of  the  body  are  seen  to  be  made  up  of  fasci- 
culi of  muscular  fibre,  some  running  perpendicularly  upwards 
towards  the  tentacula,  and  others  which  cross  the  former  at  right 
angles,  passing  transversely  around  the  body  ;  the  meshes  formed 
by  this  interlacement  are  occupied  by  a  multitude  of  granules, 
apparently  of  a,  glandular  nature,  which  give  the  integument  a 
tuberculated  aspect :  these  granules  are  not  seen  upon  the  suck- 
ing disc  at  the  base. 

"  The  tentacula  are  hollow  tubes,  composed  of  fibres  of  the  same 
description.  The  stomach  is  a  delicate  folded  membrane,  form- 


OCEAN   LIFE.  19 

ing  a  simple  bag  within  the  body.  It  seems  to  be  merely  an  ex- 
tension of  the  external  tegument,  somewhat  modified  in  texture. 
It  is  closed  inferiorly,  the  same  orifice  serving  both  for  the  intro- 
duction of  food,  and  the  expulsion  of  effete,  or  indigestible 
matter.  On  making  a  section  of  the  animal,  the  arrangement 
of  these  parts  is  distinctly  seen — the  muscular  integument,  the 
tentacula,  formed  by  the  same  fibrous  membrane  —  and  the 
stomach,  which  is  apparently  derived  from  it.  Between  the  di- 
gestive sack,  and  the  fibrous  exterior  of  the  body,  is  a  consider- 
able space,  divided  by  a  great  number  of  perpendicular  fibrous 
partitions,  into  numerous  compartments,  which,  however,  freely 
communicate  with  each  other,  and  likewise  with  the  interior  of 
the  tentacula.  Every  tentacle  is  perforated,  at  its  extremity  by 
a  minute  aperture,  through  which  the  sea-water  is  freely  admit- 
ted into  these  compartments,  so  as  to  bathe  the  interior  of  the 
body ;  and  when,  from  alarm,  the  animal  contracts  itself,  the 
water,  so  admitted,  is  forcibly  expelled  in  fine  jets  through  the 
holes  by  which  it  entered.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
surrounding  fluid,  thus  copiously  taken  into  the  body,  is  the  me- 
dium by  which  its  respiration  is  effected ;  and  every  one  who 
has  been  in  the  habit  of  keeping  Actinice  in  glass  vessels  for  the 
purpose  of  watching  their  proceedings,  must  have  noticed,  that 
as  the  fluid,  in  which  they  are  confined,  becomes  less  respirable, 
from  the  deficiency  of  air,  the  quantity  taken  into  the  body  is 
enormous,  stretching  the  animal  until  it  rather  resembles  an  inflated 
bladder  than  its  original  shape.  It  is  in  the  compartments,  which 
are  thus  at  the  will  of  the  creature  distended  with  water,  that 
we  find  the  convoluted  and  frilled  bands  which  constitute  the 
ovaries,  covered  with  cilia.  The  germs  which  are  there  developed 
find  their  way  out  through  a  duct,  which  opens  at  one  angle  of 
the  mouth.  The  eggs  found  in  the  ovaria,  are  round  and  of  a 
yellowish  color,  resembling  minute  grains  of  sand.  The  oviger- 
ous  membrane  which  secretes  these  eggs,  is,  through  its  whole 
extent,  bathed  with  water,  admitted  into  the  compartments  in 
which  it  is  lodged,  a  circumstance  which  provides  for  the  respi- 
ration of  the  ova  during  their  development.  It  is  a  pleasing 
sight,  and  one,  by  no  means  uncommon,  to  see  five,  ten,  or  twenty 
young,  of  various  sizes,  but  perfect  in  form,  expelled  from  the 


20  OCEAN   LIFE. 

duct  and  dispersed  around,  where  they  soon  attach  themselves, 
and  constitute  a  colony  around  their  parent.  The  young  while 
in  the  body  of  the  parent,  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  the 
hollow  tentacles  which  communicate  freely  with  the  interseptal 
chambers ;  and  Sir  John  Dalyell  thought  this  was  their  normal 
position.  He  says  '  in  the  course  of  six  years,  a  specimen  pre- 
served by  the  author  produced  above  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
six  young ;  some  pale  and  like  mere  specks,  with  only  eight  ten- 
tacula  ;  others  florid  and  with  twenty.  They  are  frequently  dis- 
gorged along  with  the  half  digested  food  ;  thirty-eight  appearing 
thus  at  a  single  litter.'  The  abbe  Dicquemare  relates  several 
curious  experiments  on  the  multiplication  of  these  animals  by 
mechanical  division.  When  transversely  divided,  the  upper  por- 
tion still  stretched  out  its  tentacles  in  search  for  food,  which, 
when  seized,  sometimes  passed  through  its  mutilated  body,  but 
was  occasionaly  retained  and  digested.  In  about  two  months, 
tentacles  grew  from  the  cut  extremity  of  the  other  portion, 
which  soon  afterwards  began  to  seize  prey.  By  similar  sections, 
he  even  succeeded  in  making  an  animal  with  a  mouth  at  each 
end. 

"  It  is  in  seizing  and  devouring  their  prey  however,  that  the 
habits  of  the  Actinice  are  best  exemplified.  They  will  remain 
for  hours  with  their  arms  fully  expanded  and  motionless,  waiting 
for  some  passing  animal  which  chance  may  place  at  their  disposal, 
and  when  the  opportunity  arrives,  are  little  inferior  to  the  Hydrae 
in  their  voracity  or  powers  of  destroying  their  victims.  Their 
food  generally  consists  of  crabs  or  shell-fish,  animals  apparently 
far  superior  to  themselves  in  strength  and  activity,  but  even 
these  are  easily  overpowered  by  the  sluggish  yet  persevering 
grasp  of  their  assailant.  No  sooner  are  the  tentacles  touched 
by  a  passing  animal,  than  it  is  seized  and  held  with  unfailing 
pertinacity :  the  arms  gradually  close  around  it ;  the  mouth 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  disc,  expands  to  an  extraordinary 
size ;  and  the  creature  is  soon  engulphed  in  the  digestive  bag  of 
the  Actiniae,  where  the  solution  of  all  its  soft  parts  is  rapidly 
effected,  and  the  hard,  indigestible  remnants  speedily  cast  out 
at  the  same  orifice.  The  Actiniae,  although  exceedingly  voracious, 
will  bear  long  fasting.  They  may  be  preserved  alive  for  a  whole 


OCEAN   LIFE.  21 

year,  or  perhaps  even  longer,  in  a  vessel  of  sea-water,  without  any 
visible  food  ;  but  when  food  is  offered,  one  of  them  will  devour  a 
crab,  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg  or  two  muscles  in  their  shells ;  in  a 
day  or  two,  the  shells  are  voided  through  the  mouth,  perfectly 
cleared  of  the  soft  parts  which  they  contained.  The  tentacles 
have  the  same  prehensile  power  as  those  of  the  Hydrce,  a  power 
which  depends  on  the  presence  of  projectile  barbed  weapons, 
ordinarily  coiled  in  elastic  cells.  These  organs  are  coiled  in  in- 
conceivable multitudes  imbedded  in  the  tissues  of  the  tentacles, 
of  the  lips,  of  the  stomach,  of  the  frilled  ovarian  bands,  and 
especially,  in  some  species,  in  long  threads  which  are  protruded 
from  pores  in  the  integuments  of  the  body.  The  structure  of 
these  weapons  is  as  follows  : — each  consists  of  an  oval  or  elliptical 
sac  of  transparent  membrane,  within  which  is  seen  a  thread 
coiled  up,  and  in  some  instances,  an  oblong  or  lozenge-shaped 
chamber.  At  the  pleasure  of  the  animal,  or  under  the  stimulus 
of  pressure,  the  thread  is  shot  forth  from  one  end  of  the  cell 
with  great  force,  until  it  extends  to  a  length  of  from  twice  to 
fifty  times  that  of  the  cell.  "When  fully  extended,  it  seems  that 
the  thread  is  but  a  continuation  of  the  cell  itself;  that  when 
it  was  dormant,  it  was  turned  in ;  and  that  in  the  process  of  ex- 
pulsion, every  part  of  its  length  has  actually  been  turned  inside 
out,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove.  Sometimes  the  thread  appears 
simple,  but  in  those  cases,  in  which  a  chamber  appeared  with- 
in the  cell,  it  is  furnished  with  an  armature  of  barbed 
threads,  which,  after  the  expulsion,  project  from  the  sides  of 
the  thread  in  all  directions.  The  propulsion  of  the  thread 
is  sufficiently  forcible  to  enable  it  to  enter  the  tissues  of 
other  animals,  and  the  barbed  structure  enables  the  weapon  to 
retain  its  hold  in  the  flesh,  which  facts  warrant  the  presumption 
that  a  highly  poisonous  fluid  is  at  the  same  time  injected,  capable 
of  arresting  and  destroying  the  animal  life.  Although  the  prey 
of  the  Actinia  usually  consists  of  Crustacea,  the  smaller  mollusca 
and  star  fishes ;  it  is  sometimes  of  much  greater  dimensions. 
Dr.  Johnson  observes,  "I  had  once  brought  me  a  specimen  of 
Actinia  crassicornis,  that  might  have  been  originally,  two  inches 
in  diameter,  and  that  had  somehow  contrived  to  swallow  a  valve 
of  the  great  scallop  (Peeten  maximus)  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary 


22  OCEAN  LIFE. 

saucer*  The  shell  fixed  within  the  stomach  was  so  placed  as  to 
divide  it  completely  into  two  halves,  so  that  the  body  stretched 
tensely  over,  had  become  thin  and  flattened  like  a  pancake.  All 
commnnication  between  the  inferior  portion  of  the  stomach  and 
the  mouth  was  of  course  prevented,  yet  instead  of  emaciating 
and  dying  of  an  atrophy,  the  animal  had  availed  itself  of  what 
had  undoubtedly  been  a  very  untoward  accident,  to  increase  its 
enjoyments  and  its  chance  of  double  fare.'  A  new  mouth  fur- 
nished with  two  rows  of  numerous  tentacula  was  opened  up  on 
what  had  been  the  base  and  led  to  the  under  stomach.  The  in- 
dividual had  indeed  become  a  sort  of  Siamese  twins,  but  with 
greater  intimacy  and  extent  in  its  unions." 

Metridium  Prsetextum,  (J.  P.  Couthony,)  exhibited  wholly  in 
the  plate,  is  generally  found  with  its  body  covered  with  sand, 
having  its  disc  expanded  on  a  level  with  the  surface.  When  mo- 
lested they  entirely  conceal  themselves  beneath  the  sand.  Spe- 
cimens were  obtained  off  Santa  Cruz  :  also  on  the  north  side  of 
the  harbor,  near  Praya  Grande.  Another  allied  species  was 
observed  by  Dr.  C.  Pickering  in  the  sand  among  the  rocks  out- 
side of  the  harbor. 

ACALEPHJE. 

"TN  the  third  division  of  Acalephse,  denominated  by  Cuvier, 
*  Acalephes  Hydrostatiques,'  the  body  is  supported  in  the  water 
by  a  very  peculiar  organ,  or  set  of  organs,  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose. This  consists  of  one  or  more  bladders,  capable  of  being 
filled  with  air  at  the  will  of  the*animal,  which  are  appended  to 
the  body  in  various  positions,  so  as  to  form  floats  of  sufficient 
buoyancy  to  sustain  the  creature  upon  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
when  in  a  state  of  distension ;  but,  when  partially  empty,  allow- 
ing it  to  sink,  and  thus  escape  the  approach  of  danger."  "  The 
most  conspicuous,  if  not  the  most  typical,  member  of  the  Physo- 
grade  order  of  Acalephae  is  the  Physalia,  (known  to  sailors  by 
the  name  of  the  Portuguese  man-of-war,)  in  wrhich  all  that  part 
answering  to  the  disc  in  the  '  Pulmograde'  order,  is  expanded 
into  a  bag,  the  major  part  of  which  is  occupied  by  an  air-bladder, 
whilst  the  digestive  cavity  is  subdivided  amongst  a  series  of  ap- 
pendages attached  to  one  part  of  the  under  surface  of  the  bag. 


OCEAN  LIFE.  23 

This  part  consists  of  an  outer  thin  and  dense  membrane,  of  an 
inner  thicker  membrane  beset  with  long  cilia,  and  of  an  air- 
bladder,  which  at  one  point  is  attached  to  the  above  membranes, 
where  there  is  a  small  constricted  aperture,  at  least  in  the  outer 
membrane.  This  membrane  is  developed  into  a  kind  of  crest 
along  its  upper  part."  "The  air-bladder  is  endowed  with  a  con- 
siderable power  of  contraction,  and  when  carefully  examined, 
two  orifices  are  observable,  one  at  each  extremity,  through  which, 
upon  pressure,  the  contained  air  readily  escapes,  a  provision  for 
enabling  the  creature  to  regulate  its  specific  gravity  at  pleasure, 
and,  when  alarmed,  at  once  to  lessen  its  buoyancy  by  diminish- 
ing the  capacity  of  its  swimming-bladder,  and  to  sink  into  the 
waves."  "  The  opinion  that  these  animals  are  able  to  expel  the 
air  from  the  air-bladder  at  will,  was  rendered  doubtful,  as  a 
general  rule,  by  Olfers,  who  could  find  no  opening  in  the  large 
bladder  of  Physalia.  [Subsequent  observations,  however,  have 
determined  that  Physalia  is  the  only  one  of  the  Physsophoridse 
whose  bladder  does  really  communicate  with  the  external  air. 
But,  though  there  be  no  such  communication  in  the  rest,  Leuckart 
states  that  in  many  of  them  (and  he  believes  it  to  be  true  of  all,) 
the  air  may  be  readily  caused  to  pass  from  the  cavity  of  the 
bladder  into  that  of  the  common  stem,  by  the  expansion  of  the 
upper  extremity  of  which  the  air-bladder  is  in  all  cases  sur- 
rounded." "Quatrefages  has  described  the  action  of  the  sphincter 
muscle,  and  the  connexion  of  both  bladders  with  the  aperture ; 
he  also  caused  the  air  contained  in  the  interior  bladder  to  be 
analyzed,  and  found  that  it  contained  less  of  oxygen  than  atmo- 
spheric air,  by  about  three  per  cent. ;  the  animal  appeared  to  be 
able  to  expel  the  air  voluntarily  at  intervals,  and  to  distend  the 
bladder  again  after  a  short  time ;  it  would  therefore  seem  to  be 
a  respiratory  organ  for  the  colony.  The  air-bladder  is  surround- 
ed on  all  sides  by  the  external  bladder  or  envelope,  which  is,  in 
fact,  the  expanded  stem  of  the  colony ;  with  the  under  surface 
of  this  the  various  appendages  are  connected,  and  into  its  cavity 
the  cavities  of  them  all  open  more  or  less  directly.  The  bladder 
in  Physalia  did  not  appear  to  Quatrefages  to  be  merely  a  passive 
organ,  for  besides  the  power  of  emptying  and  distending  it,  the 
animal  seemed  to  be  able  to  direct  the  fluid  contained  in  the 


24  OCEAN   LIFE. 

cavity  of  the  appendages  into  this  or  that  bundle  of  them  at  will, 
and  so  to  alter  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  blad- 
der, and  by  thus  bringing  different  regions  of  it  to  the  surface,  to 
steer  its  course.]  The  appendages  are  of  three  kinds:  Urticating, 
digestive,  and  (probably)  generative.  The  urticating  tentacles 
are  the  longest ;  they  are  hollow,  and  are  provided  with  muscular 
fibres,  of  which  the  most  conspicuous  are  longitudinal,  and  serve 
to  retract  them.  They  contain  many  corpuscles  of  a  reniform 
shape,  and  are  richly  provided  with  thread-cells,  whose  filaments 
are  of  the  spiral  kind.  The  gastric  appendages  are  shorter  and 
wider,  and  are  provided  with  stomata,  which  are  applied  to  the 
prey  seized  and  benumbed  by  the  tentacles.  If  the  prey  be  small, 
it  is  sucked  bodily  into  the  gastric  sac  ;  if  large,  the  sac  becomes 
distended  with  its  juices  and  dissolved  parts,  the  gastric  secretion 
being  a  very  rapid  and  powerful  solvent.  The  mouth  of  each  sac 
is  wide,  with  a  broad  everted  lip,  armed  with  a  series  of  i  nettle- 
cells.'  The  whole  gastric  appendage  is  highly  contractile,  and 
in  constant  motion  in  the  living  animal.  The  appendages  of  the 
third  class  are  cyathiform." 

ECHINODERMA  T  A.  —  (Asteroidea.) 

"THE  casual  observer  who  should,  for  the  first  time,  examine  a 
star-fish,  or  a  sea-urchin,  two  of  the  most  familiar  examples  of 
the  Echinodermata  met  with  upon  our  shores,  would  indeed  find 
it  a  difficult  task  to  associate  them  with  any  other  class,  or  to 
imagine  the  affinities  whereby  they  are  related,  either  to  the 
simpler  animals  we  have  already  described,  or  to  more  perfect 
forms  of  existence  hereafter  to  be  mentioned.  They  would  seem 
to  stand  alone  in  the  creation,  without  appearing  to  form  any 
portion  of  that  series  of  development  which  we  have  hitherto  been 
able  to  trace.  But  this  apparent  want  of  conformity  to  the 
general  laws  of  development  vanishes  on  more  attentive  examina- 
tion ;  so  that  we  may  not  only  trace  the  steps  by  which  every 
family  of  this  extensive  class  merges  insensibly  into  another,  but 
perceive  that,  at  the  two  opposite  points  of  the  circle,  the  Echi- 
dermata  are  intimately  in  relation  with  the  Polyps  on  one  hand, 


OCEAN   LIFE.  25 

while  on  the  other  they  as  obviously  approximate  the  annulose 
animals,  to  which  the  most  perfectly  organized  amongst  them 
bear  a  striking  resemblance.  In  Ophiurus,  the  rays  are  long 
and  simple,  resembling  the  tails  of  so  many  serpents — a  circum- 
stance from  whence  the  name  of  the  family  is  derived.  Never- 
theless, on  each  side  of  every  ray  we  still  trace  movable  lat- 
eral spines,  which,  although  but  mere  rudiments  of  what  may 
be  seen  in  Comatula,  may  still  assist  in  locomotion,  or  perhaps 
may  contribute  to  retain  the  prey  more  firmly  when  seized  by 
the  arms.  The  rays  themselves  are  composed  of  many  pieces 
curiously  imbricated  and  joined  together  by  ligaments,  so  that 
they  are,  from  their  length  and  tenuity,  extremely  flexible  in  all 
directions,  and  serve  not  only  for  legs  adapted  to  crawl  upon  the 
ground,  but  are  occasionally  serviceable  as  fins,  able  to  support 
the  animal  in  the  water  for  a  short  distance  by  a  kind  of  undu- 
latory  movement.  The  body,  or  central  disc,  is  beautifully  con- 
structed, being  made  up  of  innumerable  pieces  accurately  fitted 
together.  The  mouth  occupies  the  centre  of  the  ventral  surface, 
and  is  surrounded  by  radiating  furrows,  in  which  are  seen  minute 
apertures  that  give  passage  to  a  set  of  remarkable  prehensile 
organs;  these  are  calculated  to  act  as  suckers,  and  so  disposed 
as  either  to  fix  the  body  of  the  animal,  or  to  retain  food  during 
the  process  of  deglutition.  In  Ophiurus  we  have  just  mentioned 
the  existence  of  protrusible  suckers  around  the  opening  of  the 
mouth,  well  adapted,  from  their  position,  to  take  firm  hold  of 
food  seized  by  the  animal ;  and  it  is  by  increasing  the  number  of 
such  organs  that  ample  compensation  is  made  for  the  loss  of  mo- 
tion in  the  rays  themselves  in  the  star-fishes.  On  examining  the 
lower  surface  of  an  Asterias,  even  in  those  forms  which  most  ap- 
proximate a  right-lined  pentagon  in  their  marginal  contour,  the 
number  of  rays  will  still  be  found  to  be  distinctly  indicated  by  as 
many  furrows  radiating  from  the  mouth,  and  indicating  the  centre 
of  each  division  of  the  body.  These  ambulacral  furrows,  as  they 
are  termed,  exhibit,  when  examined  in  a  dried  specimen,  innu- 
merable orifices  arranged  in  parallel  rows,  through  each  of  which, 
when  alive,  the  animal  could  protrude  a  prehensile  sucker,  capa- 
ble of  being  securely  attached  to  any  smooth  surface.  No  verbal 
description  can  at  all  do  justice  to  this  wonderful  mechanism, 
4 


26  OCEAN   LIFE. 

even  leaving  out  of  the  question  the  means  by  which  each  indi- 
vidual sucker  is  wielded ;  but  let  any  of  our  readers,  when  oppor- 
tunity offers,  pick  up  from  the  beach  any  of  these  animals,  the 
common  star-fish  of  our  coast,  which,  as  it  lies  upon  the  sand  left 
by  the  retiring  waves,  appears  so  incapable  of  movement,  so 
utterly  helpless  and  inanimate ;  let  him  place  it  in  a  large  glass 
jar  filled  with  its  native  element,  and  watch  the  admirable  spec- 
tacle which  it  then  presents :  Slowly  he  perceives  its  rays  expand 
to  their  full  stretch  *  hundreds  of  feet  are  gradually  protruded 
through  the  ambulacral  apertures,  and  each,  apparently  possessed 
of  independent  action,  fixes  itself  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel  as  the 
animal  begins  its  march.  The  numerous  suckers  are  soon  all 
employed,  fixing  and  detaching  themselves  alternately,  some 
remaining  firmly  adherent,  while  others  change  their  position ; 
and  thus,  by  an  equable  gliding  movement,  the  star-fish  climbs 
the  sides  of  the  glass  in  which  it  is  confined,  or  the  perpendicular 
surface  of  the  submarine  rock.  But  it  is  not  only  as  agents  in 
locomotion  that  the  ambulacral  suckers  are  used  ;  helpless  as 
these  creatures  appear  to  be,  they  are  among  the  most  formidable 
tyrants  of  the  deep,  as  will  be  readily  admitted  by  any  one  who 
watches  them  in  the  act  of  devouring  prey.  When  seizing  its 
food,  the  rays  of  the  Asterias  are  bent  towards  the  ventral  aspect, 
so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  cup,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  opening 
of  the  mouth;  the  cup  thus  formed  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  lay 
hold  of  a  passing  victim ;  but,  without  other  means  of  securing 
it,  the  grasp  would  scarcely  be  very  formidable  to  animals  pos- 
sessed of  any  strength ;  armed,  however,  as  the  rays  have  been 
found  to  be,  with  hundreds  of  tenaceous  suckers,  escape  is  almost 
impossible,  for  prey  once  seized  is  secured  by  every  part  of  its 
surface,  and,  in  spite  of  its  utmost  efforts,  is  speedily  dragged 
into  the  mouth,  and  engulphed  in  the  capacious  stomach,  where 
its  soft  parts  are  soon  dissolved. 

"  On  examining  a  living  Asterias,  the  outer  covering  of  its  body 
is  found  to  be  composed  of  a  dense  coriaceous  substance,  in  which 
numerous  calcareous  pieces  are  apparently  imbedded.  The  cori- 
aceous integument  is  generally  colored  externally  with  lively 
tints,  and  is  evidently  possessed  of  considerable  irritability,  as  it 
readily  shrinks  under  the  knife,  or  upon  the  application  of  various 


OCEAN   LIFE.  27 

stimuli.  When  cut  into,  it  has  a  semi-cartilaginous  hardness, 
and  fibrous  bands,  almost  resembling  tendon  in  their  aspect,  may 
be  seen  to  radiate  from  the  centre  of  the  body  towards  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  rays.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  movements  of 
the  rays  are  effected  by  the  contractions  of  this  fibrous  membrane. 
The  skeleton,  or  calcareous  framework  imbedded  in  the  skin  of 
the  Asteridse,  is  by  no  means  the  least  remarkable  part  of  their 
structure.  This  consists  of  several  hundred  pieces,  variously  dis- 
posed, and  for  the  most  part  fitted  together'with  great  accuracy; 
being  either  firmly  soldered  to  each  other,  as  we  have  seen  them 
to  be  in  the  formation  of  the  calcareous  box  that  constitutes  the 
central  portion  of  Ophiurus,  or  united  by  ligaments,  so  as  to 
allow  of  a  considerable  degree  of  motion  to  take  place  between 
them,  as  in  the  rays  of  Ophiurus,  and  other  asteroid  forms." — 
"  The  star-fishes,  grossly  considered,  might  be  regarded  as  mere 
walking  stomachs  ;  and  the  office  assigned  to  them  in  the  economy 
of  nature,  that  of  devouring  all  sorts  of  garbage  and  offal  which 
would  otherwise  accumulate  upon  our  shores.  But  their  diet  is 
by  no  means  exclusively  limited  to  such  materials,  since  crusta- 
ceans, shell-fish  of  various  kinds,  and  even  small  fishes,  easily 
fall  victims  to  their  voracity.  Neither  is  the  size  of  the  prey 
upon  which  they  feed  so  diminutive  as  we  might  suppose,  from  a 
mere  inspection  of  the  orifice  representing  the  mouth  ;  for  this  is 
not  only  extremely  dilatable,  but,  as  we  have  found  to  be  the 
case  in  the  Actinioe,  the  stomach  is  occasionally  partially  in- 
verted, in  order  more  completely  to  embrace  substances  about  to 
be  devoured.  Shell-fishes  are  frequently  swallowed  whole,  and 
a  living  specimen  of  Chama  antiquata,  Lin.,  has  been  taken  from 
the  digestive  cavity  of  an  Asterias,  in  an  entire  state.  It  appears, 
moreover,  that  it  is  not  necessary  for  testaceous  Mollusca  to  be 
absolutely  swallowed,  shell  and  all,  to  enable  the  Asteridse  to  ob- 
tain possession  of  the  inclosed  animal,  as  they  would  seem  to 
have  the  power  of  attacking  large  oysters,  to  which  they  are 
generally  believed  to  be  peculiarly  destructive,  and  of  eating 
them  out  of  their  shells.  The  ancients  believed  that,  in  order  to 
accomplish  this,  the  star-fish,  on  finding  an  oyster  partially  open, 
"cunningly  inserted  one  of  its  rays  between  the  valves,  and  thus, 
gradually  insinuating  itself,  destroyed  its  victim.  Modern  ob- 


28  OCEAN   LIFE. 

servations  do  not,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  fully  bear  out  the 
above  opinion  of  our  ancestors  as  to  the  mode  in  which  star- 
fishes attack  oysters,  although  the  destruction  which  they  cause 
is  pretty  generally  acknowledged. 

"  The  observations  recorded  by  M.  Eudes  Deslongchamps  upon 
this  subject  are,  however,  exceedingly  curious.  As  the  waves 
had  receded  from  the  shore,  so  as  to  leave  only  one  or  two 
inches  of  water  upon  the  sand,  he  saw  numbers  of  Asterias 
rubens  rolling  in  bunches,  five  or  six  being  fastened  together 
into  a  sort  of  ball  by  the  interlacement  of  their  rays.  He  ex- 
amined a  great  number  of  such  balls,  and  constantly  found  in 
the  centre  a  Bivalve  Molluse,  (Mactra  Stultorum,  Lin.)  of  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  length.  The  valves  were  invariably  opened  to  the 
extent  of  two  or  three  lines,  and  the  star-fishes  were  always 
ranged  with  their  mouths  in  contact  with  the  edges  of  the  valves. 
On  detaching  them  from  the  shell  which  they  thus  imprisoned, 
he  found  that  they  had  introduced  between  the  valves  large 
rounded  vesicles  with  very  thin  walls,  and  filled  with  a  transpa- 
rent fluid.  Each  Asterias  had  five  of  these  vesicles  ranged  around 
its  mouth,  but  they  were  of  very  unequal  size  ;  generally  there 
were  two  larger  than  the  rest,  equal  in  size  to  large  filberts, 
while  the  other  three  were  not  bigger  than  small  peas.  These 
vesicles  appeared  to  be  attached  to  the  Asterias  by  short  pedicles, 
and  at  the  end  of  each  was  a  round  open  aperture,  through  which 
the  fluid  contained  in  the  vesicle  flowed  out  drop  by  drop.  No 
sooner  was  the  animal  detached  from  the  shell  that  it  was  thus 
sucking,  than  the  vessels  collapsed,  and  became  no  longer  distin- 
guishable. The  Mactra  were  all  found  to  be  more  or  less  de- 
voured, some  having  only  their  adductor  muscles  left^  but,  how- 
ever little  they  had  been  injured,  all  had  lost  the  power  of  closing 
their  valves  and  were  apparently  dead ;  nevertheless  there  was 
nothing  to  lead  to  the  supposition  that  only  dead  shell  fishes  were 
attacked,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  the  delicate  vesi- 
cles above  described  escaped  injury  from  the  closing  of  the  valves. 
M.  Deslongchamps  thinks  that  probably  the  Asterias  pours  into 
the  shell  a  torpifying  secretion,  and  thus  ensures  the  death  of 
its  victim."  "  The  Asterias  possesses  no  organs  specially  ap- 
propriated to  respiration ;  but  the  sea  water  being  freely  admit- 


OCEAN   LIFE.  29 

r~ -» 

ted  into  the  general  cavity  of  the  body  through  a  set  of  minute 
membranous  tubes  seen  upon  the  exterior  of  the  animal,  bathes 
all  the  viscera,  and  consequently  ensures  a  complete  exposure  of 
the  circulating  fluids  to  the  influence  of  oxygen, — the  whole 
peritoneal  surface  performing  the  office  of  a  respiratory  apparatus. 
"  The  nervous  apparatus  of  the  Asteridse,  consists  of  a  simple 
circular  cord,  which  runs  around  the  mouth  of  the  animal;  from 
this  ring,  three  delicate  filaments  are  given  off  opposite  to  each 
ray,  one  of  which  according  to  Tiedemann,  runs  along  the  centre 
of  the  ambulaceal  grove  upon  the  under  surface  of  the  body, 
and  gives  minute  twigs  to  the  locomotive  suckers  placed  on  each 
side  of  its  course ;  the  other  two  filaments,  pass  into  the  visceral 
cavity,  and  are  probably  distributed  to  the  internal  organs. 
There  are  no  ganglia  developed  on  any  part  of  this  nervous  ap- 
paratus ;  or  at  least,  if,  as  some  writers  assert,  ganglionic  en- 
largements are  visible  at  the  points  whence  the  radiating  nerves 
are  given  off,  they  are  so  extremely  minute  as  not  in  any  degree 
to  merit  the  appellation  of  nervous  centres."  "  The  general 
sense  of  touch  in  the  Asteridse  is  extremely  delicate,  serving  not 
only  to  enable  them  to  seize  and  secure  prey,  but  even  to  recog- 
nise its  presence  at  some  little  distance,  and  thus  direct  these 
animals  to  their  food.  Any  person  who  has  been  in  the  habit  of 
fishing  with  a  line  in  the  shallow  bays  frequented  by  star-fishes, 
and  observed  how  frequently  a  bait  is  taken  and  devoured  by 
them,  will  be  disposed  to  admit  this  ;  yet  to  what  are  we  to  at- 
tribute this  power  of  perceiving  external  objects  ?  It  would 
seem  most  probably  due  to  some  modification  of  the  general 
sensibility  of  the  body,  allowing  of  the  perception  of  impressions 
in  some  degree  allied  to  the  sense  of  smell  in  higher  animals, 
and  related  in  the  character  to  the  kind  of  sensation  by  which 
we  have  already  seen  the  Actiniae  and  other  polyps  able  to  ap- 
preciate the  presence  of  light,  although  absolutely  deprived  of 
visual  organs." 


80  OCEAN  LIFE* 


ECHINOIDEA. 

"THE  Echini,  however  they  may  appear  to  differ  in  outward 
form  from  the  Asteridae,  will  be  found  to  present  so  many  points 
of  resemblance  in  their  general  structure,  that  the  account  we 
have  given  above,  of  the  organization  of  the  last  mentioned 
family,  will  throw  considerable  light  upon  the  still  more  elabo- 
rately constructed  animals  which  now  present  themselves  to  our 
notice." 

"  The  Echini  may  be  found  in  abundance  upon  our  coasts,  in- 
habiting the  sea,  not  far  from  the  shore,  or  lurking  among  rocks, 
where  they  obtain  the  means  of  sustenance.  Their  shape  is  more 
or  less  completely  globular,  and  their  whole  surface  covered  with 
strong  spines,  on  which  they  roll  themselves  from  place  to  place, 
moving  them  all  as  though  they  were  stiff  legs ;  but  if  they  wish 
to  hide  themselves  from  observation,  or  perceive  they  are  in 
danger  of  being  left  upon  the  shore  by  the  retreating  tide,  these 
numerous  spines  perform  the  part  of  rakes,  and  scraping  up  the 
sand,  soon  makes  a  kind  of  grave  into  which  the  creature  sinks, 
till  it  is  covered  over,  securing  for  itself,  by  this  proceeding, 
safety  from  external  violence  and  also  water  to  respire  until  the 
tide  comes  back. 

"  Such  power  of  walking  in  an  animal  that  is  enclosed  on  all 
sides  in  a  shelly  box,  seems  in  itself  sufficiently  surprising,  but 
when  we  learn  that  it  can  climb  the  cliff  in  search  of  food,  and 
even  make  its  way,  while  pendant  from  the  roof  of  rocky  caverns, 
we  scarcely  can  conceive  the  possibility  of  its  performing  feats 
so  difficult,  and  eagerly  inquire  what  means  have  been  provided 
for  the  purpose* 

"  Whoever  takes  the  trouble  to  observe  the  Echinus  while  alive, 
confined  in  fresh  sea  water,  or  at  large  upon  its  native  rock,  will 
not  be  long  in  doubt  upon  this  point.  Protruding  from  the  shell, 
and  reaching  past  the  points  of  even  the  longest  spines,  appear 
innumerable  suckers  evidently  similar  in  their  construction,  and 
in  function  too,  to  those  of  the  Asteridce.  These  are  applied  in 
turn  to  the  smooth  inner  surface  of  the  glass,  or  to  the  stone  on 
which  the  creature  climbs,  and  by  the  aid  of  this  elaborate 


OCEAN  LIFE.  81 

mechanism  the  Echinus  glides  along  to  browse  the  corralines, 
and  other  Zoophytes,  which  clothe  the  rocky  reef  or  sea-girt 
precipice.  The  creature's  mouth  is  carried  next  the  ground ;  it 
is  a  circular  orifice,  surrounded  with  a  fleshy  ring,  through  which 
protrude  five  sharp  crystalline  teeth,  whose  points  all  meeting  in 
the  centre  serve  to  nibble  off  the  substances  employed  as  nutri- 
ment, and  thus,  without  apparent  instruments  of  sense,  such  as 
belong  to  higher  animals,  and  unpossessed  of  limbs  except  its 
spines  and  suckers,  the  sea  urchin  marches  on  with  ease,  in 
situations  where,  apparently,  no  footing  could  be  found,  and  lives 
a  life  of  indolent  security,  encased  in  solid  armor  and  beset  with 
spines,  compared  with  which,  the  bristles  of  the  hedge-hog  are  a 
poor  protection.  Such  being  the  general  habits  of  the  Echinidce, 
our  next  inquiries  must  relate  to  their  construction,  and  perhaps 
we  are  already  prepared  to  expect  that  this  must  offer  many 
features  worthy  of  remark. 

"  The  shell,  or  dense  calcareous  crust,  that  seems  to  enclose  the 
animal,  is  really  placed  internally,  for  although  it  contains  the 
viscera  appointed  for  nutrition,  all  the  living  flesh,  the  real  sub- 
stance of  the  creature  is  external  to  it.  Let  this  fact  be  well  remem- 
bered if  we  would  appreciate  the  analogies  which  still  ally  those 
globe-like  beings  to  the  star-fishes,  and  through  them  to  the 
polyps. 

"tThe  shell,  in  the  fresh  animal,  is  covered  over  with  a  thin 
fleshy  skin  filled  with  calcareous  points.  This  skin  is  fibrous 
and  contractile,  being,  in  truth,  the  representative  of  the  soft 
fleshy  covering  that  encases  all  the  branches  of  an  JEnorinite, 
and  which  in  Asterias  moves  the  rays  and  spines.  It  is  in  fact 
the  animal  itself;  it  forms  the  shell  within  and  likewise  wields 
the  external  organs,  the  stiff  prickles,  when  employed  as  instru- 
ments of  locomotion.  Though  more  distinctly  muscular  than  in 
inferior  zoophytes,  and  consequently  capable  of  contracting  more 
energetically,  it  contains  the  power  of  separating  earthy  matter 
from  the  sea  wherewith  it  moulds  the  shell  that  gives  it  shape, 
and  also  constructs  the  countless  spines  that  stud  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  body,  all  of  which  are  built  by  slow  precipitation  of 
calcareous  particles  secreted  by  the  living  skin  itself.  Imme- 
diately beneath  the  living  tegument  is  placed  the  shell,  itself  a 


32  OCEAN   LIFE. 

structure,  perhaps  the  most  elaborately  framed  of  any  we  have 
had  occasion  to  allude  to :  a  piece  of  workmanship  so  exquisite, 
so  far  beyond  all  human  art,  so  visibly  demonstrating  sovereign 
skill  and  boundless  wisdom,  that  a  sense  creeps  over  the  mind 
as  we  proceed  with  all  humility  to  contemplate  so  great  a  miracle. 
And  here  we  may  observe  that  such  examples  of  contrivance  and 
of  obvious  intention  as  are  frequently  displayed  in  what  may  be 
termed  the  ruder  mechanism  of  nature,  often  come  with  greater 
emphasis  upon  the  heart,  than  all  the  more  mysterious  wonders 
that  abound  in  natural  science. 

"  The  physiologist  perceives  at  every  step,  proofs  of  design 
which  baffle  human  comprehension,  but  the  ideas  they  raise  are 
vague  and  undefined,  and  so,  of  course,  the  application  too  is 
indistinct ;  but  when  we  can,  from  first  to  last,  perceive  the  end 
in  view,  and  understand  the  means  of  its  accomplishment,  the 
mind  is  satisfied,  and  owns  at  once  how  great  the  foresight  and 
how  grand  the  power  of  the  Supreme  Designer. 

"  The  crust  of  the  Echinus,  when  denuded  of  its  spines,  and 
stripped  of  its  external  coverings,  would  seem  to  be  an  ordinary 
shell,  having  its  outer  surface  covered  over  with  polished  tuber- 
cles, regularly  arranged.  Of  these  the  largest  are  disposed  in 
lines  that  pass  from  pole  to  pole  of  the  round  box,  like  lines  of 
longitude  upon  the  globe  of  the  geographer. 

"  Intermixed  among  the  larger  tubercles  are  seen  innumerable 
smaller  eminences  of  similar  construction,  but  dispersed  with  less 
precise  arrangement,  upon  all  of  which,  when  in  a  living  state, 
spines  were  attached  in  corresponding  number.  Moreover,  placed 
at  intervals  between  the  spine-crowned  tubercles  are  ten  broad 
bands,  disposed  in  pairs,  all  pierced  with  countless  holes  ;  these 
too  extend  from  pole  to  pole  of  the  round  box,  and  through 
them,  during  life,  the  locomotive  suckers  passed,  already  noticed 
as  being  used  for  climbing  rocks  or  for  attachment  to  some 
foreign  body.  On  cutting  through  the  shell,  so  as  to  see  its 
inner  surface,  we  perceive,  to  our  surprise,  that  far  from  being, 
as  it  appears  externally,  a  simple  shelly  exudation  moulded  to 
the  form  of  the  Echinus  like  the  shells  of  lobsters  or  mollusca, 
it  is  a  very  complex  fabric  built  with  most  consummate  art,  con- 
sisting of  some  thousand  pieces  varying  in  size,  but  shaped  with 


OCEAN   LIFE. 


33 


mathematical  precision,  and  conjured  with  so  much  accuracy, 
that  the  eye  can  but  with  difficulty  trace  the  line  of  union. 
Tell  a  human  artisan,  however  versed  in  geometrical  proportions, 
to  cut  out  a  thousand  plates,  polygonal  in  form,  and  fit  them  to 
each  other,  leaving  not  the  slightest  space  between  their  margins 
any  where,  so  that  the  whole  shall  form  a  hollow  sphere  of  certain 
given  proportions,  how  would  he  succeed  ?  Doubtless  he  would 
pronounce  the  problem  quite  impracticable.  But  in  the  shell 
before  us,  that  is  what  nature  has  achieved  most  perfectly. 
First,  we  observe  five  double  rows  of  oblong  plates,  pentagonal 
in  form,  which  on  their  outer  sides  present  the  spine-supporting 


tubercles.  On  either  side  are  found  innumerable  pieces  of  a 
smaller  size,  but  equally  exact  in  shape,  through  which  are  bored 
the  perforations  for  the  ambulacral  feet,  and  these  again  are 
separated  from  another  row  of  perforated  plates  by  other  inter- 
mediate pieces  having  spines  affixed  externally.  These  plates 
are  mostly  pentagons  in  form,  with  sides  of  various  lengths,  but 
all  combined,  fit  each  other  so  closely,  that  their  combination 
seems  to  form  one  solid,  compact  shell. 

"  We  shall  not  stop  to  count  the  number  of  the  plates  com- 
prised in  every  series,  or  to  calculate  how  many  perforations  are 
provided  for  the  feet.  Let  the  reader  try  to  number  them  when 


34  OCEAN   LIFE. 

opportunity  occurs,  though  here,  numbers  are  of  little  conse- 
quence. Let  us  rather  ask  why  Nature  in  this  case  has  chosen  to 
work  by  laws  so  complex,  when  we  might  suppose  a  simpler  fabric 
might  have  done  as  well  ?  why  frame  a  shell  composed  of  thou- 
sands of  small  portions  thus  connected,  when  even  in  higher 
animals  all  this  elaborate  device  can  be  dispensed  with  ?  A  little 
thought  will  convince  us  that,  even  here  as  elsewhere,  Nature 
has  employed  no  useless  superfluity  of  structure.  To  case  the 
animal  in  stone,  would  have  been  a  simple  process ;  as  we  have 
already  seen  that  almost  all  the  zoophytes  secrete  calcareous 
matter  in  abundance ;  but,  when  thus  closed  up  in  a  stony  shell, 
how  could  the  creature  grow  ?  Here  is  the  difficulty.  We  might 
as  well  expect  a  Chinese  lady's  foot  to  grow  while  shod  in  iron, 
as  that  an  Echinus  should  expand  from  the  small  size  it  first 
presents,  to  its  adult  dimensions,  without  some  remarkable  pro- 
vision being  made  to  allow  of  such  an  increase.  Growth  con- 
stantly goes  on,  and  yet  the  crust  itself,  being,  when  once  formed, 
devoid  of  life,  and  as  incapable  of  growing  as  if  made  of  marble, 
cannot  expand  as  do  the  bones  of  higher  animals,  neither  is  any 
part  left  soft,  but  at  all  ages,  the  whole  shell  has  the  same  com- 
pactness and  solidity  throughout,  and  presents  the  same  precise 
distinctive  form  peculiar  to  the  species.  The  only  way  in  which 
this  difficulty  could  be  met  is,  obviously,  that  which  Nature  has 
adopted. 

"  The  shell  is  made  of  numerous  pieces,  between  the  contiguous 
margin  of  which,  the  shell  secreting  tegument  dips  down,  adding 
continually  to  the  circumference  of  every  piece,  cretaceous  parti- 
cles, layer  after  layer,  by  which  the  superficial  size  of  each  pro- 
gressively increases,  whilst  its  form  remains  unchanged.  The 
thousand  pieces  that  compose  the  shell,  thus  simultaneously  be- 
come enlarged,  and  as  they  never  change  their  figure  or  the 
relative  proportions  that  they  bear  to  all  the  rest,  the  entire 
shell  expands  without  the  slightest  deviation  from  the  given  form, 
till  it  attains  the  limit  of  its  growth. 

"  Examine  well  the  spines.  The  base  of  every  spine  presents 
a  smooth  concavity  or  socket,  which  exactly  fits  one  of  the 
rounded  tubercles  already  pointed  out,  upon  the  outer  surface  of 
the  shell,  and  forms  a  perfect  joint.  No  matter  how  minute  the 


OCEAN  LIFE,  35 

spines,  be  they  as  thin  and  delicate  as  th<;  fine  pile  of  velvet, 
such  as  exist  in  the  Clypeaster  and  in  other  flattened  genera,  or 
large  and  club-shaped,  as  in  Cidarites,  the  joint  is  equally  com- 
plete and  movable  in  all  required  directions.  In  the  last  men- 
tioned race,  indeed,  we  see  additional  provisions  made  to  give 
secure  attachment,  the  centre  of  each  tubercle  being  furnished 
with  a  little  pit,  from  which  arises  a  strong  ligament  that  is  im- 
planted in  the  base  of  the  appended  spine  to  obviate  all  chance 
of  dislocation. 

"  To  understand  the  mode  in  which  the  spines  are  all  produced, 
and  fixed  upon  the  body  of  the  Echinus,  we  must  again  refer  to 
the  soft  tegument  whereby  the  numerous  pieces  of  the  shell  are 
all  secreted.  The  skin,  which  is,  in  fact,  the  living  substance 
of  the  creature's  body,  likewise  constructs  the  spines,  and  if  a 
section  of  one  of  th'ese  is  prepared,  taken  from  a  recent  speci- 
men, each  will  be  found,  encrusted  over  with  a  layer  of  this  soft 
fleshy  membrane,  as  were  the  stems  of  corals,  or  Crorgonice  ;  and 
in  like  manner,  the  investing  film  is  able  to  secrete  cretaceous 
particles,  which  are  arranged,  stratum  investing  stratum,  with 
such  art  and  regularity,  that  few  more  beauteous  objects  can  be 
found,  than  one  of  these  neglected  spines." 

"  The  suckers  of  the  Echini,  in  all  essential  particulars,  re- 
semble exactly  those  of  an  Asterias,  consisting  of  long  projecti- 
ble  fleshy  cylinders,  which  are  protruded  and  rendered  tense 
by  water,  or  some  other  fluid  injected  into  them,  from  an  appara- 
tus contained  within  the  body.  The  degree  to  which  the  protu- 
sible  tube  can  be  exerted  will  of  course  differ  in  every  genus  in 
proportion  to  the  length  of  the  locomotive  spines,  it  being  abso- 
lutely necessary,  that,  however  long  the  latter  organs  may  be, 
the  prehensile  portion  of  the  sucker  shall  be  able  to  reach  be- 
yond them  ;  so  that  in  the  long  spined  genera,  of  which,  in  warm 
climates,  some  are  found  having  spines  several  inches  in  length, 
the  tubes,  with  their  appended  adhesive  discs,  resemble  little 
cables  thrown  out  to  a  distance,  for  the  animals,  in  order  to  secure 
an  anchorage,  or  ropes  whereby  to  hoist  themselves  from  ledge 
to  ledge,  of  the  steep  rock,  on  which  their  food  is  found. 

"  These  suckers  that  surround  the  mouth  perform,  besides, 


36  OCEAN  LIFE. 

another  duty,  and  may  be  compared  to  fishing  lines,  ready  to 
seize  upon  such  prey  as  comes  within  their  reach  and  drag  it  to 
the  mouth  to  be  devoured." 


HOLOTHUROIDEA. 

"A  HOLOTHURIA  may  be  regarded  in  one  light  as  a  soft  Sea- 
Urchin,  in  another  as  a  radiated  animal,  approximating  the  An- 
nalides."  "  In  common  language  they  are  generally  known  by 
the  appellation  of  *  Sea  cucumbers;'  and  in  fact,  to  a  casual 
observer,  the  resemblance  which  they  bear  to  those  productions 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  both  in  shape  and  general  appearance, 
is  sufficiently  striking.  The  integument  which  covers,  or  rather 
forms  the  body,  is  entirely  destitute  of  those  calcareous  pieces 
which  encase  the  Echini  and  Star-fishes  ;  but  appears  to  consist 
of  a  dense  fibrous  cutis  of  considerable  thickness,  covered  exter- 
nally with  a  thin  epidermic  layer.  Beneath  the  cutis  is  another 
tunic  composed  of  strata  of  tendinous  fibres  crossing  each  other 
in  the  midst  of  a  tissue  of  a  semi-cartilaginous  nature,  which  is 
capable  of  very  great  distention  and  contraction,  and  serves  by 
its  elasticity  to  retain  the  shape  of  the  body.  Within  this  dense 
covering  are  seen  muscular  bands  running  in  different  directions, 
which  by  their  contraction  give  rise  to  the  various  movements  of 
the  creature.  But  although  the  calcareous  shell  of  the  Echinus 
is  thus  totally  lost,  the  locomotive  suckers  or  feet  already  de- 
scribed are  still  the  principal  agent  employed  in  progression.  In 
many  species,  these  organs  are  distributed  over  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  animal,  and  are  protruded  through  countless  minute 
orifices  which  perforate  the  integument.  In  other  cases,  they 
are  arranged  in  five  series,  resembling  the  ambulacra  of  an 
Echinus ;  and  in  some  instances  they  are  only  found  upon  the 
middle  of  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body,  that  forms  a  flattened 
disc  upon  which  the  animal  creeps  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a 
snail.  The  ambulacral  feet  themselves  precisely  resemble  in  all 
the  details  of  their  structure  those  of  the  Asterias,  and  their  pro- 


OCEAN  LIFE.  37 

trusion  and  retraction  are  effected  in  the  same  manner.  The 
mouth  is  a  round  aperture,  as  wide  as  a  goose-quill,  placed  in 
the  centre  of  a  raised  ring  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  body. 
Around  the  oral  orifice  is  placed  a  circle  of  tentacula,  which  are 
apparently  extremely  sensible,  and  serve  perhaps  not  only  as  in- 
struments of  touch,  but  as  prehensile  organs  used  for  the  cap- 
ture of  prey,  or  for  assisting  in  deglutition." 

"  Sir  John  Graham  Dalyell  stated  in  1840  that  he  had  observed 
the  Holothuriae  lose  the  tentacula,  with  the  cylinder  (dental  ap- 
paratus), mouth,  ossophagus,  lower  intestinal  parts,  and  the 
ovarium,  separating  from  within  and  leaving  the  body  an  empty 
sac  behind.  Yet  it  does  not  perish.  In  three  or  four  months 
all  the  lost  parts  are  regenerated,  and  a  new  funnel,  composed  of 
new  branches  as  long  as  the  long  body  of  the  animal,  begins  to 
exhibit  the  same  peculiarities  as  the  old  one,  though  longer  time 
be  required  to  attain  perfection.  Other  species  of  the  Holothu- 
ria  divide  spontaneously  through  the  middle  into  two  or  more 
parts,  all  becoming  ultimately  perfect  by  the  development  of 
new  organs.  Yet  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  whole  genus 
is  so  complex  as  to  defy  the  skill  of  anatomists  in  discovering 
the  proper  functions  of  some  of  the  parts.  A  single  Holothuria 
has  produced  5000  ova  in  the  course  of  a  night.  Of  one  genus, 
the  Trepang,  many  species  are  eaten.  In  Mr.  F.  D.  Bennett's 
interesting  'Account  of  a  Whaling  Voyage  round  the  Globe,' 
we  are  told  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  Trepang  abundant  on  the 
rocks  at  Raiatia,  and  they  are  very  indolent  animals.  '  When 
handled,'  says  Mr.  Bennett,  Hhe  Trepang  contracts  its  body  in  a 
longitudinal  direction,  and  should  its  tentacles  be  expanded  they 
are  instantly  concealed ;  but  no  noise  or  agitation  of  the  sur- 
rounding water  will  excite  these  symptoms  of  alarm,  or  cause 
any  attempt  to  escape.  They  usually  lie  exposed  in  the  shallow 
waters,  though  we  have  very  often  seen  them  buried  in  beds  of 
coral  sand,  their  plumy  tentacles  being  alone  exposed,  and  float- 
ing in  the  water  above,  apparently  as  a  lure  for  prey.  Some 
may  also  be  observed  lying  on  the  rocks,  their  bodies  completely 
encrusted  with  coral  sand,  which  may  either  have  been  accumu- 
lated by  a  previous  burrowing,  or  thus  used  as  a  disguise.  It 
would  appear  to  be  partly  the  instinct  of  the  animal  to  take  its 


38  OCEAN   LIFE. 

prey  in  ambush ;  but  what  that  prey  is,  as  well  as  the  entire 
economy  of  these  Moluscs,  remains  a  perplexing  mystery.  Their 
intestines  invariably  contain  many  hard  and  solid  masses  of 
madreporic  rock  or  tree-coral,  some  of  them  more  than  an  inch 
in  length,  and  all  moulded  as  pellets  to  the  calibre  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal.  It  is  difficult  to  say  how  these  stony  bodies  have 
been  obtained  by  the  Trepang,  though  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that 
they  may  be  rendered  serviceable  as  nutriment  by  the  assimila- 
tion of  the  animal  matter  they  contain.  It  is  this  animal  which 
the  Malays  of  the  Oriental  Isles  seek  so  diligently,  for  the  supply 
of  the  China  market,  where  it  obtains  a  good  price  when  well 
preserved.  It  is  employed  by  the  Chinese  in  the  preparation  of 
nutritious  soups,  in  common  with  an  esculent  sea-weed,  Shark's 
fins,  edible  bird's  nests,  and  other  materials,  affording  much 
jelly.'  Jaeger  says  the  intestines  are  extracted,  the  animal  then 
boiled  in  sea-water,  and  dried  in  smoke." 


CRUSTACEA. 

"  THE  Crustacea  pre-eminently  make  the  waters  their  home  ; 
they  are  the  aquatic  division  of  that  mighty  host  of  living  things, 
that  range  under  the  title  of  ARTICULATA.  In  most  respects, 
CRUSTACEA  are  so  much  like  insects,  that  the  older  naturalists, 
and  the  illustrious  Linngeus  among  the  number,  arranged  them 
under  the  great  class  INSECTA.  They  have,  however,  a  greater 
number  of  limbs ;  the  full  provision  being  five  pairs  of  true  feet, 
and  three  pairs  of  organs,  which 'are  called  foot-jaws.  Besides 
these,  a  great  number  of  the  species  have  five  or  six  pairs  of 
jointed  limbs  attached  to  the  underside  of  the  abdomen,  which 
are  generally  used  for  progression,  and  are  called  false  feet. — 
Their  mouth  is  furnished  with  three  pairs  of  jaws  and  two  pairs 
of  antennae.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  total 
complement  of  these  members  is  not  found  present  in  every  spe- 
cies, some  of  them  being  wanting  in  certain  extensive  groups. — 
The  researches  of  a  naturalist  who  has  paid  much  attention  to 
this  class,  Mr.  Spence  Bate,  have  shed  a  flood  of  interesting 
light  on  the  office  of  the  organs  last-named.  Any  one  may  easily 


OCEAN   LIFE.  39 

identify  them  in  the  Lobster  or  Prawn.  Take  the  latter.  On 
each  side  of  the  long  sword-like  and  spiny  beak  that  projects 
above  the  head,  there  is  an  organ  consisting  of  three  stout  joints, 
at  the  tip  of  which  are  three  threads,  of  which  two  are  of  great 
length,  and  formed  of  numberless  rings,  and  the  third  is  short. 
These  organs,  then,  constitute  the  inner  pair  of  antennae. — 
Below  these  there  is  a  pair  somewhat  similar,  but  they  consist  each 
of  five  joints,  and  one  long  thread  with  a  large  flat  plate  on  each 
side.  These  are  the  outer  antennae.  The  former  are  the  organs 
of  hearing,  the  latter  those  of  smelling.  In  the  living  animal, 
the  inner  antennae  are  always  carried  in  an  elevated  posture,  and 
are  continually  flirted  to  and  fro  with  a  rapid  jerking  motion 
that  is  very  peculiar,  striking  the  water  every  instant.  It  is 
very  conspicuous  in  the  Crabs,  from  the  shortness  of  the  organs 
in  question.  To  help  the  perceptions  of  the  animal,  the  many- 
jointed  filament  which  strikes  the  water,  is  fringed  with  hairs  of 
great  delicacy  standing  out  at  right  angles  to  the  stalk,  so  that 
the  slightest  vibrations  cannot  fail  to  be  conveyed  to  the  senso- 
rium.  This  may  be  called  the  outer  ear ;  but  in  the  interior  of 
the  basal  joint,  which  is  large  and  swollen,  there  is  a  cochlea,  or 
inner  ear,  having  calcareous  walls  of  delicate  texture,  to  the 
centre  of  which  passes  the  auditory  nerve.  The  outer  antennae 
differ  greatly  from  the  inner  in  their  internal  structure,  though 
they  resemble  them  so  much  in  form.  In  the  Crabs,  the  basal 
joints  form  a  sort  of  box  or  compact  mass,  with  an  orifice  on  the 
side  next  the  mouth,  closed  or  opened  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a 
little  door  with  a  hinge,  on  the  interior  side  of  which  a  long  bony 
lever  is  fastened  with  the  necessary  muscles  attached  to  it.  In 
the  Lobster  and  Prawn  the  door  is  wanting,  but  the  orifice  is 
protected  by  a  thin  membrane ;  and  in  some  of  the  lower  forms 
it  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  strong  spine  or  projection.  In  all 
cases,  however,  the  orifice  '  is  so  situated  that  it  is  impossible  for 
any  food  to  be  conveyed  into  the  mouth  without  passing  under 
this  organ ;  and  of  this  the  animal  has  the  power  to  judge  its 
suitability  for  food  by  raising  the  operculum  (or  door)  at  will, 
and  exposing  to  it  the  hidden  organ-Mine  olfactory.' 

"  The  'crust,'  or  skin  which  envelopes  the  body,  in  these  ani- 
mals,  differs  from  that  of  INSECTS,  inasmuch   as  it  generally 


40  OCEAN   LIFE. 

contains  a  considerable  portion  of  carbonate  of  lime.  In  many  of 
the  smaller  forms,  as  in  the  Shrimps  and  Prawns,  it  takes  the 
consistence  of  thin  transparent  horn ;  but  in  the  larger,  as  in 
Lobsters  and  Crabs,  it  acquires  a  great  density,  is  perfectly 
opaque,  and  of  the  hardness  of  true  shell  or  even  of  stone.  In 
the  tips  of  the  stout  claws  of  the  Crab,  we  see  it  at  its  maximum 
of  induration. 

"  The  periodic  casting  of  the  skin  is  a  needful  provision  for 
growth  in  these  animals,  as  in  Insects ;  in  them  it  is  confined  to 
the  caterpillar  state,  in  which  alone  growth  takes  place  ;  but  here 
it  prevails,  because  growth  is  continued  long  after  the  perfect 
form  is  attained.  The  rigidity  of  the  encasing  armor  forbids 
the  possibility  of  increase  in  its  capacity.  The  growth,  there- 
fore, is  periodic.  At  certain  intervals  the  hard  crust  is  thrown 
off  in  several  pieces,  a  new  crust  having  been  prepared  beneath, 
which  is  at  first  soft,  flexible,  and  expansible.  The  body,  now 
freed,  instantly  enlarges  in  all  directions,  and,  in  a  few  minutes, 
has  attained  the  full  extent  of  growth  needed.  The  crust  at 
once  hardens,  and  in  a  brief  space  becomes  as  inflexible  as  was 
its  predecessor,  admitting  no  further  enlargement  either  of  its 
own  surface  or  of  the  contained  organs.  The  animal  usually  un- 
dergoes this  process  in  the  most  retired  situation  it  can  find,  in- 
stinctively conscious  of  its  unprotected  position  when  soft,  and 
apparently  feeling  sick  and  feeble. 

"Another  interesting  circumstance  in  the  economy  of  this 
class,  is  the  power  of  renewing  injured  or  lost  limbs.  If  one  of 
the  joints  of  a  Crab's  legs  be  wounded,  it  would  bleed  to  death 
but  for  this  provision.  The  animal,  however,  stiffens  the  hurt 
limb,  and  suddenly  throws  it  off,  the  separation  invariably  taking 
place  at  the  point  where  the  second  joint  is  united  with  the  first. 
A  small  gland  is  placed  here,  according  to  Mr.  H.  Goodsir,  which 
supplies  material  for  future  legs  as  required.  '  When  the  limb  is 
thrown  off,  the  blood-vessels  and  nerve  retract,  thus  leaving  a 
small  cavity  in  the  new-made  surface.  It  is  from  this  cavity  that 
the  germ  of  the  future  leg  springs.  A  scar  forms  over  the  raw 
surface  caused  by  the  separation,  which  afterwards  forms  a  sheath 
for  the  young  leg.'  'As  the  growth  advances,  the  shape  of  the 
new  member  becomes  apparent,  and  constrictions  appear,  indi- 


OCEAN   LIFE.  41 

eating  the  position  of  the  articulation ;  but  the  whole  remains 
unprotected  by  any  hard  covering  until  the  next  change  of  shell, 
after  which  it  appears  in  a  proper  case,  being,  however,  still  con- 
siderably smaller  than  the  corresponding  claw  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  body,  although  equally  perfect  in  all  its  points." 

CIRRHOPODA. 

"HOWEVER  distinct  in  outward  appearance,  and  even  in  their 
internal  economy,  the  creatures  composing  the  primary  divisions 
of  animated  nature  may  seem  to  be  when  superficially  examined, 
closer  investigation  invariably  reveals  to  the  zoologist  gradations 
of  structure  connecting  most  dissimilar  types  of  organization,  and 
leading  so  insensibly  from  one  to  another,  that  the  precise  bound- 
ary-line which  separates  them  is  not  always  easily  defined.  The 
Cirrhopoda,  indeed,  present  a  strange  combination  of  articulated 
limbs,  united  with  many  of  the  external  characters  of  a  Mollusk,  as 
will  be  at  once  evident  from  the  examination  of  any  species  of  Bar- 
nacle, whether  Sesile  or  pedunculated."  "At  first  sight  no  two 
objects  can  well  be  more  unlike  than  a  Barnacle  and  a  Shrimp.  The 
former  is  inclosed  in  a  true  shell  composed  of  many  pieces  united 
either  by  shelly  matter  or  by  cartilage,  which  allow  of  the  pro- 
trusion and  retraction  of  a  hand  of  fine  hairy  filaments,  the  whole 
permanently  affixed  to  foreign  objects  either  by  a  thick,  flexible 
stalk,  or  by  a  broad  immovable  base.  The  older  naturalists  as- 
sociated these  animals  with  the  shell  bearing  MOLLUSCA,  calling 
them  multivalves,  and  even  up  to  very  recent  times  they  have 
been  considered  as  equally  allied  to  the  sub-kingdom  just  named 
and  to  that  in  which  they  occur  here.  Mr.  Charles  Darwin, 
however,  in  his  admirable  Monograph,  has  fully  demonstrated 
the  close  affinity  which  subsists  between  them  and  the  CRUSTACEA, 
of  which  he,  indeed,  considers  them  only  a  sub-division.  I  pre- 
fer, however,  to  treat  them  as  a  class  by  themselves,  believing 
that  the  diversity  between  the  groups  is  quite  as  great  as  that 
which  subsists  between  the  CRUSTACEA  and  the  ARACHNIDA,  or 
between  the  ARACHNIDA  and  the  INSECTA.  The  Barnacle  begins 
life  in  a  form  exactly  like  that  of  a  young  Entomostracous  Crus- 
G 


42  OCEAN   LIFE. 

taceau,  with  a  broad  carapace,  a  single  eye,  two  pairs  of  antennae, 
three  pairs  of  jointed,  branched,  and  well-bristled  legs,  and  a 
forked  tail.  It  casts  off  its  skin  twice,  undergoing,  especially  at 
the  second  month,  a  considerable  change  of  figure.  At  the  third 
month  it  has  assumed  almost  the  form  of  a  Cypris  or  Cythere, 
being  inclosed  in  a  bivalve  shell,  in  which  the  front  of  the  head 
with  the  antennae  is  greatly  developed,  equalling  in  bulk  all  the 
rest  of  the  body.  The  single  eye  has  become  two,  which  are 
very  large,  and  attached  to  the  outer  arms  of  two  bent  processes 
like  the  letters  U  U,  which  are  seen  within  the  thorax. 

"In  this  stage  the  little  animal  searches  about  for  some  suitable 
spot  for  permanent  residence;  a  ship's  bottom,  a  piece  of  floating 
timber,  the  back  of  a  whale  or  turtle,  or  the  solid  rock.  When 
its  selection  is  made,  the  two  antennae,  which  project  from  the 
shell,  pour  out  a  glutinous  gum  or  cement,  which  hardens  in 
water,  and  firmly  attaches  them.  Henceforth,  the  animal  is  a 
fixture,  glued  by  the  front  of  its  head  to  its  support.  Another 
moult  now  takes  place ;  the  bivalve  shell  is  thrown  off,  with  the 
great  eyes,  and  their  U-like  processes,  and  the  little  Cirriped  is 
seen  in  its  true  form.  It  is  now  in  effect  a  Stomapod  Crustacean, 
attached  by  its  antennae,  the  head  greatly  lengthened  (in  Lepas, 
&c.),  the  carapace  composed  of  several  pieces  (valves),  the  legs 
modified  into  cirri,  and  made  to  execute  their  grasping  movements 
backwards  instead  of  forwards,  and  the  whole  abdomen  obliter- 
ated, or  reduced  to  an  inconspicuous  rudiment. 

"The  sessile  or  stalkless  Barnacles  or  Acorn-shells  (Ballanidae), 
appear  to  differ  much  in  the  formation  of  their  shells  from  the 
Lepadidae,  (stalked,)  but  the  diversity  is  produced  by  modification 
of  the  same  essential  valves. 

"  The  food  devoured  by  the  Cirrhopoda  would  seem  to  consist 
of  various  minute  animals,  such  as  small  Mollusks  and  micro- 
scopic Crustacea,  caught  in  the  water  around  them  by  a  mechan- 
ism at  once  simple  and  elegant.  Any  one  who  watches  the 
movements  of  a  living  Cirrhopod  will  perceive  that  its  arms,  with 
their  appended  cirrhi,  are  in  perpetual  movement,  being  alter- 
nately thrown  out  and  retracted  with  great  rapidity ;  and  that, 
when  fully  expanded,  the  plumose  and  flexible  stems  form  an  ex- 
quisitely beautiful  apparatus,  admirably  adapted  to  entangle 


.OCEAN   LIFE.  43 

any  nutritious  molecules,  or  minute  living  creatures,  that  may 
happen  to  be  present  in  the  circumscribed  space  over  which  this 
singular  casting-net  is  thrown,  and  drag  them  down  into  the 
vicinity  of  the  mouth,  where,  being  seized  by  the  jaws,  they  are 
.  crushed  and  prepared  for  digestion.  No  sense  but  that  of  touch 
is  required  for  the  success  of  this  singular  mode  of  fishing ;  and 
the  delicacy  with  which  the  tentacula  perceive  the  slightest  con- 
tact of  a  foreign  body,  shows  that  they  are  eminently  sensible  to 
tactile  impressions." 

CONCHIFEBA. 

"  MOLLUSCOUS  animals  enveloped  in  a  shell  composed  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  forming  two  valves,  connected  by  a  joint,  and 
applied  the  one  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left  side  ;  mantle 
two-leaved,  more  or  less  open  ventrally,  generally  with  two  orifices 
behind ;  gills  four-leaved,  no  head,  mouth  placed  at  the  angle  of 
the  gills,  furnished  with  lips  and  palps,  sexes  distinct ;  young 
undergoing  a  metamorphosis." 

"  The  great  majority  of  Molluscs  which  inhabit  bivalve  shells 
constitute  a  very  numerous  and  extensive  class,  distinguished 
by  certain  characters  possessed  by  them  in  common.  Encased 
in  dense  and  massive  coverings  of  such  construction  as  to  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  their  maintaining  more  than  a  very  im- 
perfect intercourse  with  the  external  world,  and  deprived  even  of 
the  means  of  communication  with  each  other,  we  might  natu- 
rally expect  their  organization  to  correspond  in  its  general  feeble- 
ness with  the  circumscribed  means  of  enjoyment  and  limited 
capabilities  of  locomotion  allotted  to  them.  Numerous  species, 
indeed,  are  from  the  period  of  their  birth  firmly  fixed  to  the  rock 
which  gives  them  support,  by  a  calcareous  exudation  that  cements 
their  shells  to  its  surface,  as  is  familiarly  exemplified  in  the  case 
of  the  common  Oyster  ;  or  else,  as  the  Muscles  anchor  themselves 
securely  and  immovably  by  unyielding  cables  of  their  own  con- 
struction. The  Scallop,  unattached  but  scarcely  better  adapted 
for  changing  its  position,  rudely  flaps  together  the  valves  of  its 
expanded  shell,  and  thus  by  repeated  jerks,  succeeds  in  effecting 


44 


OCEAN   LIFE. 


a  retrogressive  movement.  The  simple  apparatus  by  means  of 
which  shells  are  constructed,  is  the  external  membranous  layer 
that  invests  the  body  of  the  Mollusc,  the  mantle,  as  it  has  been 
termed,  and,  whatever  the  form  of  the  shell,  it  owes  its  origin  en- 
tirely to  this  delicate  organ.  When  the  animal  is  engaged  in- 
increasing  the  dimensions  of  its  abode,  the  margin  of  the  mantle 
is  protruded,  and  firmly  adherent  all  round  to  the  circumference 
of  the  valve  with  which  it  corresponds.  Thus  circumstanced,  it 
secretes  calcareous  matter,  and  deposits  it  in  a  soft  state  upon 
the  extreme  edge  of  the  shell,  where  the  secretion  hardens  and 
becomes  converted  into  a  layer  of  solid  testaceous  substance. 
At  intervals  this  process  is  repeated,  and  every  newly-formed 
layer  enlarges  the  diameter  of  the  valve.  The  concentrix  strata 
thus  deposited  remain  distinguishable  externally,  and  thus  the 
lines  of  growth  marking  the  progressive  increase  of  size  may 
easily  be  traced. 

"  It  appears  that  at  certain  times  the  deposition  of  calcareous 
substance  from  the  fringed  circumference  of  the  mantle  is  much 
more  abundant  than  at  others :  in  this  case  ridges  are  formed  at 
distinct  intervals  ;  or,  if  the  border  of  the  mantle  at  such  periods 
shoots  out  beyond  its  usual  position,  broad  plates  of  shell,  or 
spines  of  different  lengths,  are  secreted,  which,  remaining  per- 
manent, indicate,  by  the  interspaces  separating  successively  de- 
posited growths  of  this  description,  the  periodical  stimulus  to 
increased  action  that  caused  their  formation. 

u  Whatever  thickness  this  shell  may  subsequently  attain,  the 
external  surface  is  thus  exclusively  composed  of  layers  deposited 
in  succession  by  the  margin  of  the  mantle ;  and,  seeing  that  this 
is  the  case,  nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  understand  how  the 
colors  seen  upon  the  exterior  of  the  shell  are  deposited,  and  as- 
sume that  definite  arrangement  characteristic  of  the  species. 
The  border  of  the  mantle  contains  in  its  substance  colored  spots; 
these  when  minutely  examined,  are  found  to  be  of  a  glandular 
character,  and  to  owe  their  peculiar  colors  to  a  pigment  secreted  by 
themselves ;  the  pigment  so  furnished,  being  therefore  mixed  up 
with  the  calcareous  matter  at  the  time  of  its  deposition,  colored 
lines  are  formed  upon  the  exterior  of  the  shell  wherever  these 
glandular  organs  exist.  If  the  deposition  of  color  from  the 


OCEAN   LIFE.  45 

glands  be  kept  up  without  remission  during  the  enlargement  of 
the  shell,  the  lines  upon  its  surface  are  continuous  and  unbroken ; 
but  if  the  pigment  be  furnished  only  at  intervals,  spots  or  colored 
patches  of  regular  form,  and  gradually  increasing  in  size  with 
the  growth  of  the  mantle,  recur  in  a  longitudinal  series  wherever 
the  paint-secreting  glands  are  met  with. 

"  The  organs  of  hearing  consist  of  a  pair  of  transparent  cap- 
sules filled  with  a  clear  fluid.  Each  contains  a  glassy  globule, 
which  constantly  maintains  a  very  singular  and  rotary  motion, 
that  instantly  ceases  when  the  capsule  is  ruptured.  These  cap- 
sules are  situated  in  the  foot. 

"  Organs  of  vision  are  much  more  obvious,  at  least  in  many 
species,  being  often  highly  colored,  very  numerous,  and  promi- 
nently situated." 


GASTEROPODA. 

"  MOLLUSCOUS  animals  furnished  with  a  distinct  head,  and  a 
fleshy  crawling  foot ;  either  naked  or  protected  by  a  shell,  for 
the  most  part  formed  of  a  single  piece,  and  generally  spirally 
turned;  mouth  provided  with  lips,  and  a  ribbon-like  tongue, 
armed  with  rows  of  teeth ;  eyes  two ;  tentacles  two  or  four. — 
Young  subject  to  metamorphosis. 

"  Extensively  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  land,  or  in- 
habiting the  waters  either  fresh  or  salt,  there  exists  a  very  nu- 
merous body  of  Mollusca,  differing  widely  among  themselves  in 
construction  and  habits,  but  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  locomo- 
tive apparatus  common  to  the  entire  class,  by  means  of  which 
they  are  able  to  fix  themselves  to  plane  surfaces,  and  to  move 
from  place  to  place  by  a  slow  or  gliding  motion.  The  Slug,  the 
Snail,  the  Limpet,  and  the  Whelk,  afford  familiar  examples  of 
their  general  form  and  appearance. 

"  The  upper  parts  in  the  majority  of  species,  are  covered  with 
a  fleshy  cloak  or  mantle,  the  edges  of  which  are  free,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  and  in  some  cases  are  expanded  into  great  lateral 
wings.  In  the  Sea-hare  (Aplysia),  these  expansions  serve,  by 


46  OCEAN  LIFE. 

their  waving  motion,  as  swimming  fins.  The  proper  function  of 
the  mantle-edge  is,  however,  the  formation  and  increase  of  the 
shell ;  and  hence  it  is  always  found,  in  shell-covered  species,  on 
that  part  of  the  body  which  is  near  the  orifice.  In  a  few  species, 
the  shell  is  included  within  the  substance  of  the  mantle.  A  dis- 
tinct head  is  always  present,  more  or  less. conspicuous  according 
to  the  degree  in  which  it-  projects  from  beneath  the  front  of  the 
mantle.  It  is  furnished  with  various  organs  of  sense.  The  organs 
of  touch  are  one  or  two  pairs  of  contractile  tentacles,  placed  com- 
monly on  the  back  of  the  head.  In  some  cases  these  can  be 
inverted  and  everted ;  but  more  generally  they  are  solid.  The 
hinder  pair,  where  there  are  two,  are  often  more  complex  in 
structure  than  the  others,  and  are,  perhaps,  the  seat  of  the  sense 
of  smell.  Well-developed  eyes  are  almost  invariably  present  in 
this  class.  They  never  exceed  a  single  pair,  and  are  generally 
placed  on  some  part  of  the  tentacles, — the  hinder  ones,  when  there 
are  two  pairs.  The  most  common  position  for  these  organs  is  at 
the  extremity  of  a  short  fieshy  column,  springing  from  the  base 
of  the  tentacle.  In  many  species  the  eyes  present  an  elaborate 
structure  ;  the  great  Strombidce  of  the  tropical  seas,  for  example, 
have  eyes  with  l  a  distinct  pupil  and  a  double  iris,  equalling,  in 
beauty  and  correctness  of  outline,  those  of  birds  and  reptiles;' 
and  many  of  our  native  genera,  as  Bucsinum  and  Murex,  are 
scarcely  inferior,  in  this  respect,  to  the  Strombidce. 

"  There  is  always  in  these  animals  a  distinct  mouth,  placed  at 
the  front  of  the  head,  furnished  with  swollen,  contractile  lips, 
often  prolonged  into  a  cylindrical  proboscis.  In  many  species, 
as  in  Eolis,  Tritonia,  $c.,  there  are  two  horny,  sharp-edged 
plates,  which  act  as  jaws,  playing  over  each  other,  like  the 
blades  of  shears.  Sometimes  there  is  only  a  single  jaw-plate 
inserted  in  the  palate.  There  is,  beside  the  jaws,  a  fleshy  band, 
longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  genus,  which  performs  the 
function  of  a  tongue.  It  is  sometimes  grooved  along  its  surface, 
and  is  always  armed  with  horny  teeth  or  spines,  which  are  ar- 
ranged in  regular  rows,  both  longitudinally  and  transversely. 
The  form,  number,  and  pattern  of  these  teeth  vary  greatly, 
though  always  constant  in  the  same  species.  They  '  are  amber- 
colored,  glassy,  and  translucent ;  and  being  siliceous  (they  are  in- 


OCEAN   LIFE.  47 

soluble  in  acid),  they  can  be  used  like  a  file  for  the  abrasion  of 
very  hard  substances.  With  them  the  Limpet  rasps  the  stony 
mullipore,  the  Whelk  bores  holes  in  other  shells,  and  the  Cuttle- 
fish doubtless  uses  its  tongue  in  the  same  manner  as  the  cat.' 

"In  each  transverse  row,  there  is  generally  a  variously-toothed 
plate,  pointing  backwards,  and  overlapping  the  base  of  its  pre- 
decessor ;  while  on  each  side  of  this  there  are  several  lateral 
teeth  in  the  form  of  curved  spines  which  arch  inwards.  The 
tongue  of  the  Limpet  is  longer,  when  extended,  than  the  whole 
animal ;  that  of  the  Whelk  has  a  hundred  rows  of  teeth,  while 
the  great  Slug  has  one  hundred  and  sixty  rows,  with  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  teeth  in  each  row.  The  stomach  is  sometimes 
armed  with  horny  plates  and  teeth,  as  in  the*  Sea-hare  (Aplysia), 
which  feeds  on  leathery  Fuel. 

"  The  shell  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  CONCHI- 
FERA,  by  the  folding  back  of  the  edge  of  the  mantle.  Very 
many  species  carry  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  a  horny  or 
shelly  plate  (Opereulum),  which  accurately  closes  the  aperture 
of  the  shell,  when  the  animal  has  withdrawn  into  its  recesses. 
The  form  of  this  appendage  is  ordinarily  that  of  a  very  flat  cone, 
made  by  successive  layers,  each  a  little  larger  than  its  predeces- 
sor, or  a  flattened  spire.  The  common  Top-shells  (Trochus,) 
afford  good  example  of  the  spiral  operculum." 


PISCES.— FISHES. 

"To  whatever  portion  of  the  animal  world  we  turn  our  attention, 
we  find  the  lowest  and  least  perfectly  organized  tribes  to  be  in- 
habitants of  the  water.  To  dwell  upon  land,  necessarily  demands 
no  inconsiderable  share  of  strength  and  activity,  limbs  sufficiently 
strong  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body,  muscles  possessed  of 
great  power  and  energy  of  action,  acute  and  vigilant  organs  of 
sense,  and,  moreover,  intelligence  and  cunning  proportioned  to 
the  dangers  and  necessities  of  terrestrial  existence. 

"The  inhabitant  of  the  waters,  on  the  contrary,  although 
less  highly  gifted,  may  be  fully  competent  to  enjoy  the  position 


48  OCEAN   LIFE. 

it  is  destined  to  occupy.  Being  constantly  buoyed  up  on  all 
sides  by  a  dense  element,  it  is  easily  supported  at  any  required 
altitude  without  much  muscular  effort ;  but  feeble  limbs  are  re- 
quired to  guide  its  path  through  the  water,  and  slight  impulses 
suffice  to  impel  it  forward. 

"  The  surface  of  the  body  of  fishes,  is  in  most  instances 
covered  by  numerous  scales,  which  vary  considerably  in  size  and 
substance  in  different  species.  The  arrangement  of  these  scales 
exhibits  considerable  uniformity.  Each  scale  is  attached  to  the 
fish  by  its  anterior  edge ;  and  the  manner  in  which  the  scales 
overlap  each  other  in  different  genera,  is  variable,  and  gives  an 
appearance  of  form  to  each  scale  which  in  reality  it  does  not 
possess.  By  maceration  in  water,  scales  exhibit  a  series  of 
laminae,  the  smallest  in  size  having  been  first  produced :  they  re- 
semble a  cone,  the  apex  of  which  is  outward,  the  smallest  being 
in  the  centre ;  hence  the  appearance  of  numerous  concentric 
lines  all  of  the  same  shape,  which  mark  the  growth. 

"  The  fins  are  important,  not  only  as  organs  of  motion,  but  as 
affording  by  their  structure,  position,  and  number,  materials  for 
distinguishing  orders,  families,  and  genera.  The  membranes  of 
the  fins  are  thin,  and  more  or  less  transparent,  supported  by 
slender  elongated  processes  of  bone,  some  of  which  consist  of  a 
single  piece,  which  is  pointed  at  the  end ;  such  fin  rays  are  called 
spinous  rays.  Others  are  formed  of  numerous  portions  of  bone 
united  by  articulations,  and  frequently  divided  at  the  end  into 
several  filaments  ;  these,  from  their  pliant  nature,  are  called  soft 
or  flexible  rays,  and  two  leading  divisions  in  systematic  arrange- 
ment are  founded  on  this  difference  in  structure.  The  number  of 
fin  rays  in  each  fin  of  different  examples  of  the  same  species,  is 
not  always  exactly  alike.  The  names  given  to  the  different  fins 
are  derived  from  the  part  of  the  body  to  which  they  are  attached. 

"  The  use  of  the  operculum  or  gill  covers,  is  to  close  the  aper- 
ture behind  the  gills.  The  blood  in  fishes,  while  passing  through 
the  gills  or  branchiae,  receives  the  influence  of  oxygen  from  the 
water  which  enters  by  the  mouth  and  goes  out  by  this  aperture. 
In  the  fishes  included  in  the  first  three  orders,  the  gills  are  so 
formed,  and  so  freely  suspended,  that  the  water  bathes  in  its 
passage,  every  part  of  their  surface. 


OCEAN   LIFE.  49 

"  The  branchiae,  or  gills,  in  fishes  possess  complex  powers,  and 
are  capable  of  receiving  the  influence  of  oxygen,  not  only  from 
that  portion  of  the  atmospheric  air  which  is  taixed  with  the  water, 
but  also  directly  from  the  atmosphere  itself. 

"  The  eyes  in  fishes  are  observed  to  occupy  very  different  posi- 
tions in  different  species.  In  some  they  are  placed  high  up,  near 
the  top  of  the  head,  but  more  frequently  on  the  flattened  side  of 
the  head,  but  always  so  situated  as  to  best  suit  the  exigencies  of 
the  particular  fish. 

"  The  sense  of  hearing  has  by  some  been  denied  to  fishes,  per- 
haps because  they  exhibit  no  external  sign  of  ears,  but  the 
Chinese,  who  breed  large  quantities  of  the  well  known  Gold-fish, 
call  them  with  a  whistle  to  receive  their  food.  Sir  Joseph  Banks 
used  to  collect  his  fish  by  sounding  a  bell ;  and  Carew,  the  histo- 
rian of  Cornwall,  brought  his  Grey  Mullet  together  to  be  fed,  by 
making  a  noise  with  two  sticks. 

"  But  from  the  rigid  nature  of  the  scaly  covering  of  the  gene- 
rality of  fishes,  it  is  probable  they  possess  but  little  exter- 
nal sense  of  touch ;  but  they  are  not  wholly  unprovided 
with  organs  which,  in  the  selection  of  their  food,  are  of  essential 
service.  The  lips  in  many  species  are  soft  and  pulpy;  the 
mouths  of  others  are  provided  with  barbules  or  cirri,  largely 
supplied  with  nerves,  which  are  doubtless  to  them,  delicate  organs 
of  touch,  by  which  they  obtain  cognizance  of  the  qualities  of 
those  substances  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  The  Gur- 
nards may  be  said  to  be  provided  with  elongated,  flexible,  delicate 
fingers,  to  compensate  for  their  bony  lips.  It  is  a  rule,  almost 
without  exception  that  I  am  aware  of,  that  those  fishes  provided 
with  barbules  or  cirri  about  the  mouth,  obtain  their  food  near 
the  ground ;  and  these  feelers,  as  they  are  popularly  called,  ap- 
pear to  be  a  valuable  compensation  to  those  species,  which,  re- 
stricted by  instinctive  habits  to  feeding  near  the  bottom  of  water 
that  is  often  both  turbid  and  deep,  must  experience  more  or  less 
imperfect  vision  there  from  the  deficiency  of  light.  The  olfactory 
nerves  in  fishes  are  of  a  very  large  size,  and  their  sense  of  smell  may 
be  presumed  to  be  acute,  from  the  selection  they  are  known  to  make 
in  their  search  after  food ;  and  the  advantage  said  to  be  gained  by 


50  OCEAN  LIFE. 

the  various  scented  oils  with  which  some  anglers   impregnate 
their  baits. 

"The  form  of  the  teeth  in  fishes  is  various;  in  general  it  re- 
presents that  of  an  elongated  cone,  slightly  curved  inwards  to 
assist  in  holding  .a  prey  which  is  frequently  alive.  Sometimes 
the  form  is  that  of  a  short  and  rounded  tubercle,  adapted  for 
crushing ;  in  some  fishes  the  teeth  are  so  small  and  numerous, 
as  to  have  the  appearance  of  the  hairs  of  a  brush ;  while  in 
others  they  are  thin  and  flat  like  the  incisor  teeth  in  the  human 
subject.  Some  fishes  that  are  without  teeth  in  the  mouth,  have 
them  in  the  throat,  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  Carp,  and 
the  allied  species  of  the  family  of  the  Cyprinidce  generally. 
Fishes  have  cold  blood ;  that  is  to  say,  the  blood  does  not,  in 
general,  rise  appreciably  above  the  temperature  of  the  element 
in  which  they  swim.  It  is  invariably  red.  The  heart  consists 
of  one  auricle  and  one  ventricle,  which  receives  the  blood  from 
the  veins,  and  sends  it  to  the  gills  for  renewal  by  the  absorption 
of  oxygen  ;  whence  it  is  circulated  through  the  body  in  arteries. 
Both  the  arteries  and  veins  are  perfectly  closed  vessels.  In  many 
fishes  there  is  a  large  bladder  situated  within  the  body  between 
the  spine  and  the  bowels  ;  it  assumes  various  forms,  and  is  always 
filled  with  air,  which,  in  marine  fishes,  is  principally  composed 
of  oxygen.  It  is  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  buoyancy  of 
the  animal,  and  hence  is  often  called  the  swimming  bladder ; 
but  there  are  structural  reasons  for  considering  it  to  be  the  first 
rudimentary  form  of  an  air-breathing  lung. 

"  The  air  bladder  does  not  occur  in  all  fishes;  some  fishes,  and 
those  particularly  that  live  near  the  bottom  of  the  water  are 
without  any.  '  The  swimming  bladder  of  fishes/  says  Dr.  Koget 
in  his  excellent  Bridgewater  Treatise,  '  is  regarded  by  many 
of  the  German  naturalists  as  having  some  relations  with  the  re- 
spiratory function,  and  as  being  the  rudiment  of  the  pulmonary 
cavity  of  land  animals ;  the  passage  of  connection  with  the  oeso- 
phagus being  conceived  to  represent  the  trachea.'  Hervey  long 
ago  observed  'that  the  air  in  birds  passed  into  cells  beyond  the 
substance  of  the  lungs  ;  thus  showing  a  resemblance  to  the 
cellular  lungs  in  reptiles,  and  the  air-bladder  in  fishes.'  M. 
Agassiz,  in  dissecting  a  species  of  Lepisosteus,  a  fresh  water  • 


OCEAN   LIFE. 

fish  of  the  waters  of  America,  found  the  air-bladder  composed 
of  several  cells,  with  a  canal  proceeding  upwards  into  the  pha- 
rynx, and  ending  in  an  elongated  slit,  with  everted  edges,  resem- 
bling a  glottis  or  tracheal  aperture.  However  obvious  may  be 
these  relations  of  structure,  it  is  still  difficult  to  believe  that 
there  can  be  any  analogy  in  function,  when  it  is  recollected  that 
one-fourth  of  the  fishes  known  are  entirely  without  air-bladders, 
and  that  two-thirds  of  the  other  three-fourths  have  neither  canal 
nor  aperture  for  external  communication,  but  that  all  are  pro- 
vided with  gills.  The  search  for  these  relations  of  structure  in 
animals  of  different  classes,  is  among  the  most  interesting  of 
the  investigations  of  the  comparative  anatomist." 

THE   HIPPOCAMPUS. 

"  Mr.  Lukis,  who  had  in  1835  two  of  these  animals,  which  had 
been  living  twelve  days  in  a  glass  vessel,  at  the  time  of  writing 
said,  <  an  appearance  of  search  for  a  resting  place  induced  me 
to  consult  their  wishes  by  placing  straws  and  sea-weed  in  the 
vessel;  the  desired  effect  was  obtained,  and  has  afforded  me 
much  to  reflect  upon  in  their  habits.  They  now  exhibit  many 
of  their  peculiarities,  and  few  subjects  of  the  deep  have  displayed 
in  prison  more  sport  or  more  intelligence.' 

"  When  swimming  about  they  maintain  a  vertical  position ; 
but  the  tail  is  ready  to  grasp  whatever  meets  it  in  the  water ; 
quickly  entwines  in  any  direction  around  the  weeds,  and  when 
fixed,  the  animal  intently  watches  the  surrounding  objects,  and 
darts  at  its  prey  with  great  dexterity. 

"  When  both  approach  each  other,  they  often  twist  their  tails 
together,  and  struggle  to  separate  or  attach  themselves  to  the 
weeds ;  this  is  done  by  the  under  part  of  their  cheeks  or  chin, 
which  is  also  used  for  raising  the  body,  when  a  new  spot  is 
wanted  for  the  tail  to  entwine  afresh." 


INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Algae.— (Sea  Weeds.)            ;•  I  "•  .            J  T               1 

Poriphora. — (Sponge.)  *"•-             .             ^-V^        4 

Zoophytes  of  old  authors,          .  i  }              «                  9 

Sertularidse,                      .  .                .                *        11 

Anthozoa  Asteroida,               -7*.  .-                .                15 

Gorgonidse,                       .  .             s...               ,,,>      15 

Pennatulidse,                             *  .                .                16 

Actiniadge. — (Sea  Anemones.)  «                .                «        17 

Acalephse,                 i'i'"          !f ':;"  '".-' , ;            ^^             22 

Echinodermata.— -(Asteroidea.)  .*-            •> :T             .        24 

Echinoidea,              >'-r^             -  .             ,  ;**h             30 

fiolothuroidea,              ' '.  vf          <.••             .-»        ^^ 

Crustacea,                >               .  .               .  F             38 

Cirrhopoda,      .   •          .  ;,-             ---•M  if.;,             •        41 

Conchifera,             ivi  ;          ,•«.  .                .                43 

Gasteropoda,    .                .  .                .                .45 

Pisces. — Fishes,       .               .  .                               47 

The  Hippocampus,          .  .                .                .51 


Trochus    araucanus . 


Stem,  and  cup  of 
Poljp  ofRcnilla  animcana,          Sertalarin  pinaster, 


Tiiaa  nifiecl . 


maanifieif. 


Murex  patayonicus 


' 


" 


-  ' 


14  DAY  USE 

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